Indigenous Research Methodology for drought resilience May 2025 Citation Fabila M, Moggridge B, Braedon P, Akeroyd M, Connolly M, Court Z, Gilbey S (2025). Indigenous research methodology for drought resilience, CSIRO, Australia. Copyright © Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation 2025. To the extent permitted by law, all rights are reserved and no part of this publication covered by copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means except with the written permission of CSIRO. Important disclaimer CSIRO advises that the information contained in this publication comprises general statements based on scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information may be incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actions must therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expert professional, scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants) excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information or material contained in it. CSIRO is committed to providing web accessible content wherever possible. If you are having difficulties with accessing this document please contact csiro.au/contact. Acknowledgments We acknowledge the Traditional Owners, the spirit Creators and our ancestors, who have cared for the Land, Sea, Water and Sky Country we study, live and connect with every day. We acknowledge Kamilaroi Water Scientist Prof Bradley Moggridge for starting this project and his existing work on which we have based our methodology. This project is part of CSIRO’s drought research and development, aimed at reducing the impacts of Australian droughts. Thank you to the internal CSIRO reviewers for their feedback on this report. Cover: Murray Darling junction with flood waters flowing in, Wentworth, New South Wales. Introduction Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (Indigenous) Peoples are Australia’s first scientists and they have been observing and adapting to Country – the land, water and sky – for thousands of years. They hold a body of knowledge systems that flow through over 250 unique languages, cultures and family systems (cultural groups) bound to designated landscapes of the Australian continent ranging from desert, tropical, alpine, sub-tropical and semi-arid climates. Each cultural group holds knowledge consisting of thousands of generations of observations and governance of the lands, waters, seas and skies that belong to, and are encoded in, their Country. Indigenous data and knowledge are essential to informing Australian environmental understanding of drought and drought resilience. The Australian landscape is prone to climate extremes, including droughts and floods. In recent years, Australia has experienced several extreme climate events that impact our social, cultural, environmental and economic values and diverse communities. These events are increasing due to human-induced climate change. Since 1910, Australia’s climate has warmed by approximately 1.48°C (Bui et al. 2024). Australia is also experiencing more extreme rainfall in Northern and Eastern Australia and a reduction in cool-season rainfall in southern Australia (Bui et al. 2024). Indigenous Peoples around the world are disproportionately vulnerable to climate extremes despite limited contributions to greenhouse gas emissions and the insufficient efforts and strategies to reduce climate change impacts. Over the last 30 years, Australia has faced several climate extremes, including droughts, that have impacted its Indigenous communities. Southeastern Australia, particularly the Murray Darling Basin, experienced the Millenium Drought from 2000–10 and, more recently, the Tinderbox Drought in 2017–19 (Cresswell et al. 2021). Other related extremes include increased heatwaves in the 2018–19 and 2019–20 summers, marine heatwaves in the Great Barrier Reef from 2015–20, the 2019–20 Black Summer bushfires, as well as significant flooding events in the New South Wales (NSW) Northern Rivers in 2022, and in the Kimberley Region after ex-Tropical Cyclone Ellie in 2022–23. Indigenous knowledge systems, capability and lived experience offer unique and essential understandings of drought and drought resilience overlooked in mainstream or Western science approaches and institutions. Indigenous Peoples have developed holistic sets of cultural indicators used to understand, care for and manage the diverse Country of the Australian continent. Recognising and embracing Indigenous cultural indicators and ways of knowing, being and doing is crucial for fostering innovative and practical actions that strengthen drought resilience. This report outlines our Indigenous Research Methodology (IRM). It seeks to gather Indigenous understandings and cultural indicators to measure and provide a baseline of drought resilience in parts of Australia. The methodology is broadly applicable and could be used to better understand other national challenges, such as health and housing, in the future. To assist with the methodology development, we define a cultural indicator as: ‘A cultural indicator refers to the accumulation of different knowledge systems, events and observations that have been experienced and passed down through story, song and dance detailing the different natural processes to infer or to deduce other natural processes that may be occurring at the same time or of similar timing of the observed natural process. These observations may signal a cultural event (ceremony) is about to begin/end or depending on cultural landscape it may indicate that it is time to move camp. These observations may include seasonal changes, climate changes, time to undertake cultural burns, climatic/weather events (wind change, rains, storms), flowering/fruiting/seeding times of Indigenous Foods, arrival of migrating species, emergence of species (insect, animal or bird), reproduction/spawning times of animals and fish, hunting and navigating by the stars (cultural astronomy) what star constellations are present and moon phases.’ A team of predominantly Indigenous scientists developed the methods based on Indigenous thinking, knowledge systems and governance. The approach is driven by the active participation of Indigenous communities, who co-design and define the project through ongoing collaboration and engagement. Indigenous knowledge systems Indigenous Peoples’ study of the Australian continent precedes Western science by many years. They have been researching their Country, including their lands, waters, seas and skies, since the beginning of time. ‘Counter-storytelling’ is an approach that prioritises the stories of people whose experiences are erased from, or dehumanised, by dominant stories and modes of storytelling’ (Dutta et al. 2022). It builds from Indigenous peoples’ struggle to reclaim, reinstitute and legitimise their knowledge systems to challenge and withstand the dominant perceived truths and systems of thinking (Dutta et al. 2022). In Australia, the ongoing process of colonisation continues to impose western knowledge systems, culture, law and language onto Indigenous Peoples. An example of this includes the frequent portrayal of Indigenous stories as ‘Myth and Legend’, ‘Tall Tales’, ‘Legends’, ‘Folklore’ and ‘Fables’ in Australian literature and books (Moggridge 2020). This misrepresents Indigenous stories as fictional output, rather than a method for memorising, recalling and transferring detailed observational data over long periods (Reser et al 2021). Applying an Indigenous research methodology seeks to demonstrate counter-storytelling by prioritising the long-standing, ongoing and adaptive knowledge-gathering practices expressed through Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing. Indigenous thinking Indigenous Peoples have formed and maintained complex knowledge systems and thinking patterns to understand and manage Country and adapt to environmental changes. Indigenous Peoples use story, song, dance, art, technology and crafts to store and maintain the cultural information stored within Country (Reser et al. 2021). While each cultural group has its methods, language, and lore for expressing and protecting their knowledge, when connected beyond the cultural group, patterns of knowledge and stories form broader Songlines (Reser at al. 2021). Songlines are managed and protected by certain knowledge holders according to lore and are traditionally expressed through song, dance and art. Over 60,000 years of ongoing knowledge production, preservation and transfer has created a network of environmental information on Country that require Indigenous thinking patterns to access or understand. The arrival of Euro-centric/Western science in Australia has provided further opportunities for Indigenous Peoples to adapt their knowledge systems to include other methods and mediums (e.g. quantitative data) to assist with preserving and expressing knowledge and managing Country. One example is CSIRO’s study on Ngemba water values and interests, which calculated the gigalitres of water needed to support the ‘spiritual and environmental health of the Barwon River, the Ngemba Old Mission Billabong and the Brewarrina Aboriginal Fish Traps, and to enable the development of local sustainable livelihood opportunities’ (Maclean et al. 2012). When discussing the connections between Indigenous knowledge and complex science, Fletcher (2023) ensures that ‘we {Indigenous researchers} are drawing from a pure well of intellectual tradition perfected over 60 000+ years, not invented in a castle 600 years ago or in a university 60 years ago’. The cultural indicators and broader Indigenous understandings of drought resilience lie within the Australian continent’s complex network of Indigenous knowledge systems. Applying research methodologies that centre Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing enables effective knowledge-gathering stored in knowledge systems (Moggridge et al. 2022). Story and art Story and art are two methods that Indigenous Peoples use to store and preserve knowledge over long periods. Stories such as Dreaming stories and Songlines hold information on the history and culture of Indigenous Peoples and Country (Moggridge 2020). Dreaming stories hold basic information about very long and complex events. Dreaming stories provide sparks or entry points into ‘all that is known and all that is understood’ (Moggridge 2020). Kamilaroi Water Scientist Bradley Moggridge (2020) uses Aboriginal connections to groundwater to explain this process, where many Dreaming stories link Aboriginal cultural heroes and creators to groundwater-related sites. These ‘Dreaming sites’ connect stories to places on Country, forming significant sites used for ceremonies, meetings between different cultural groups, marriage and resilience strategies (Moggridge 2020). Moggridge’s interpretation of Tindale’s (1974) insights into Walmadjari drought resilience strategies explains how water management practices, story and lore underpin Aboriginal drought adaptation techniques. During drought, Walmadjari go to a permanent waterhole and deepen the hole by removing excess sand and soil (Tindale 1974; Moggridge 2020). From a western hydrological perspective, digging into the saturated zone allows groundwater to seep into the hole (Moggridge 2020). Significantly, the men cry out to the wanambi or giant carpet snake, whom Walmadjari consider the groundwater holder (Tindale 1974). If the waterhole dries up, the snake is believed to have died (Tindale 1974). The personification of the waterhole strengthens people’s connections and obligations to protect the waterhole. This process reflects Kimberley Nyikina Warrwa Researcher Anne Poelina’s (2024) ‘First Law’ framework, which explains the ‘law of relationships between human and more-than-human beings’ in the Kimberley Fitzroy River region. First Law’s objective is balance and the sustainability of all life, and it consists of spiritual laws that require self-regulation and care when interacting with all living things (Poelina 2024). Poelina ensures that the guidance of First Law principles, Indigenous knowledge systems and practice are critical to adapting to climate change. Indigenous art is another medium used by Indigenous Peoples to store, classify, describe and articulate cultural information. Traditional art includes body painting, tree carvings, sandstone and rock engravings, sand art, etching and weaving (Moggridge 2020). Indigenous art is also expressed in modern art forms, including graphic design, sculpture, canvas painting, photography and fashion design. Moggridge explains that art plays an important role in documenting and mapping groundwater sources. Warlpiri and Pintupi cultural groups use dot painting forms to map soakages and springs in arid environments (Moggridge 2020). Symbolism, linework and patterning represent connections between knowledge of Country, Songline pathways and Dreamings. It supports Indigenous Peoples’ navigation, articulation and recall of complex Indigenous knowledge and data (Reser et al. 2021). Moggridge and Reser et al. point out that Indigenous art is helpful for knowledge holders to store secret or sacred information that the untrained eye cannot understand. Relationship building with Indigenous communities The development of this IRM is underpinned by the capability and capacity of the project team to establish strong working relationships with Indigenous communities. Since the beginning of the project, the project team has spent lots of time listening to the priorities of Indigenous communities. This has allowed strong working partnerships to form. Indigenous research requires patience, funding, and support that follows Indigenous community governance and capacity. For example, CSIRO has conducted several on-Country visits to Narran Lake, Rockhampton and Toowoomba to strengthen relationships with Indigenous communities and organisations, walk Country and co-design the project to suit community needs. This process allows for a more effective, coordinated and transparent approach when co-designing research activities with Indigenous communities. Royal spoonbill in wetlands. Undertake desktop study for the river reach / groundwater system / catchment and consider Indigenous cultural water values and ethics applications Workshop the suitability of sites / reaches / aquifer with authorities, the Indigenous community and water scientists Establish a research agreement (including any permits) with the Indigenous community and researchers or agency Identify and map cultural values of water body with the Indigenous community Identify traditional knowledge indicators of flow to sustain cultural values Identify appropriate river flow / gauge (ML/day) data Identifying and mapping Indigenous cultural values (water stories) for a river reach or catchment and rank the cultural health of water Establish cultural water demand: duration, timing, magnitude, quantity and quality, frequency ASSESSMENT Incorporate measurable cultural values into rules-based planning Determine who will manage and administer the water, and who will pay for the water and administrative licence requirements and required works approvals REPORTING Quantify flow required to sustain the cultural values and analyse the impact or benefit of a cultural flow Indigenous Research Methodology IRMs challenge positivist traditions and employ Indigenous ontology and epistemology to navigate knowledge systems and engage with knowledge holders in culturally appropriate ways. As explained previously, the use of story and art continues to be an active method for storing information and navigating Indigenous knowledge in a system of network relations between Indigenous Peoples, Dreaming and Country. David Reser et al. (2021) explain that Indigenous Peoples commonly use story to learn any new information outside of existing traditional Indigenous knowledge systems such as Songlines and Dreaming stories. This notion reflects the Indigenous Research Methodology for the cultural indicators of drought resilience project. Reflecting the cultural connections of the lead author and project team, the IRM uses Australian Aboriginal art, symbolism and metaphor to guide the project and navigate both Indigenous and conventional research processes and knowledge systems. The IRM draws on insights from Moggridge’s (2022) Kamilaroi Methodology (Figure 1), which provides a flexible framework for structuring Indigenous engagement and integrating cultural knowledge into water management practice in Kamilaroi Country. Our methodology uses similar principles; however, it focuses on developing and trialling an overarching framework that can be adapted and co-designed with different Indigenous communities. Figure 1. A Kamilaroi methodology for informing cultural water delivery. Source: Adapted from Moggridge et al. (2022). Applying the IRM reveals common features between long-standing Indigenous knowledge systems and practices, western scientific frameworks and conventional project management. It also provides a culturally-based engagement tool to improve communication and collaboration with communities when navigating Indigenous knowledge systems and western science. Each symbol represents a particular cultural practice or theme and signifies a step in the research process used to guide discussions with Indigenous communities. An outer layer provides space to capture each pilot study’s co-design process for defining the specific research activities and outputs. By the end, each Traditional Owner group will have created its own IRM. The IRM (Figure 2) and the story for each symbol is featured below and on the following pages. Figure 2. Indigenous research methodology for the Indigenous drought resilience project. Artwork by M Fabila, CSIRO. 1 Changes in Country observed Elements of Country, including the Great Emu in the Sky constellation, rainfall and a flowing river, represent the first stage. Indigenous Peoples have been observing Country since time immemorial. They comprehensively understand all elements of Country, including Land, Water and Sky Country. For example, if a river flow changes, Indigenous Peoples can foresee the flow-on effects to other parts of Country. 2 Agreement defined by Traditional Owners The symbol of a campfire or meeting place represents the second stage. Indigenous Peoples have practised agreement-making since time immemorial, governed by lore and kinship obligations. For example, during the changing seasons, senior Elders may meet around the fire and discuss how to prepare Country. 3 On-Country learning The symbol of places on Country connected by waterways represents the third stage. Indigenous Peoples learn about Country by walking, seeing, smelling, hearing and feeling Country. Country is constantly changing and therefore Indigenous knowledge is always flowing and evolving. For example, senior Indigenous Peoples may walk Country to monitor wind behaviour, temperature and soil moisture levels before conducting a cultural burn. 4 Record and store Indigenous data Sandstone engravings of culturally significant animals symbolise the fourth stage. Indigenous Peoples have recorded and preserved data and knowledge for thousands of years. They store knowledge in Dreaming stories, rock art, technology, ceremonies, songs, dances, and Songlines. Kinship systems, including human and non-human relations, age and gender, guide how knowledge is held, communicated and passed on. 5 Toolmaking and resources Cultural objects, including a boomerang, grinding stone, fishhook and spearhead, represent the fifth stage. Preserving, sharing and passing on knowledge of Country has allowed Indigenous Peoples to continually create new tools and resources to manage their Country, live sustainably and adapt to environmental change. For example, fish traps are another helpful tool that Indigenous people continue to preserve and modify to source food more efficiently and sustainably. 6 Share knowledge Cultural groups coming together for gatherings or ceremony represent the sixth stage. Over 250 cultural groups have shared the Australian continent since time immemorial. To survive and thrive for so long, cultural groups share knowledge, parts of Country, cultural sites, language and kinship systems and trade information, tools, materials, food sources and cultural objects. By sharing and preserving knowledge, Indigenous Peoples have created a system that allows them to preserve their Country without harming others. 7 Link back with Traditional Owners The symbol of people gathering and fishing along a river represents the seventh stage. When new tools or practices are implemented to respond to Country, Indigenous Peoples have always monitored, evaluated, and managed their impacts on Country and their communities. For example, the return of cultural species after a cultural burn or flood may indicate healthy Country. Co-design CSIRO’s Indigenous drought resilience research involves co-designing with different Traditional Owner groups. The IRM uses story, art and metaphor to guide each Traditional Owner through the research and co-design process. It also provides a template to initiate a discussion that allows Traditional Owners to begin defining each project stage. The idea is that by the end of the project, each Traditional Owner group will have created their own IRM. Figure 3 shows how the outer layer of the IRM captures the co-design process. Table 1 illustrates how the methodology facilitates discussions with Traditional Owners. Figure 3. Indigenous research methodology (detailed). Artwork by M Fabila, CSIRO. Table 1 Co-design process INDIGENOUS BOUNDARY OBJECT EXAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR TRADITIONAL OWNERS EXAMPLE RESPONSES Changes in Country observed We believe prolonged periods of drought are affecting Country. Is this an important issue to your Country and community? • Drought has been observed and is impacting our Country and community What kinds of changes have you observed? • Observations include: longer periods of drought, increased wildfires, marine heatwaves, fish kills and less fish and bird breeding events Agreement defined by Traditional Owners Would you like to participate in the project? Who should we set up the research agreement with? • Prescribed Body Corporates (PBC’s), Elders, Indigenous Alliances, Aboriginal Joint-Management Committees, and/or individual Traditional Owners What would you like to accomplish from the project? • We would like to influence an upcoming water allocation plan • We would like to build research capability within our organisation On-Country learning How would you like us to learn your knowledge? • On-Country field trips • Yarning and storytelling circles • Learning First languages • Learning Songlines • Community workshops • Structured interviews/surveys Record and store Indigenous data What knowledge would you like us to record? • Traditional Ecological Knowledge • Dreaming stories and Songlines • Language • Cultural protocols and governance How would you like us to record your data? • Photography and video • Written data • Sound recordings • Artwork and visual language • Archival research • Satellite imagery • Dual-language Where would you like to store your data during the project? • Intellectual Property and Indigenous Cultural Intellectual Property (IP & ICIP) register that defines who can access Indigenous data, including within communities (e.g. gendered knowledge) • In-house community storage • Computer/phone hard-drives • Online databases Toolmaking and resources What tools, outputs and resources would you like to create together using the data collected? • Historical impact timelines • Indigenous climate calendars • K-12 Educational resources • Resources to support policy influence • Ranger or community management resources • Community newsletters • Publications • GIS Mapping tools Share knowledge Would you like to share your knowledge with anyone? • Indigenous communities • Government • Researchers and research funders • Industry partners • Community events • Conferences • Children and youth Link back with Traditional Owners How can we ensure you are happy with the outcomes of the project? • Traditional Owners to review and evaluate the key learnings, findings and outcomes of the project • Consider impacts of the project on community, Country and governance Would you like to apply for funding to build on the project? • We would like to apply additional science to further develop the cultural indicators Work to date The research was enabled by critical foundational steps, including funding, ethics and Indigenous recruitment. Funding and Ethics This research is funded by CSIRO. This study has been approved by CSIRO’s Social Science Human Research Ethics Committee in accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research 2023. Indigenous recruitment During the early stages of the research, CSIRO project leaders committed to establishing an Indigenous-led team with strong Indigenous representation. CSIRO collaborated with the University of Technology Sydney and recruited Indigenous-identifying scientists internally and externally to form the research project team. Lake Burrinjuck, New South Wales. 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As Australia’s national science agency, CSIRO is solving the greatest challenges through innovative science and technology. CSIRO. Creating a better future for everyone. For further information Agriculture and Food Max Fabila +61 4 0027 0531 max.fabila@csiro.au csiro.au/agriculture-and-food University of Technology Sydney Dr Bradley Moggridge bradley.moggridge@uts.edu.au Contact us 1300 363 400 csiro.au/contact csiro.au