IMPACT ASSESSMENT REPORT
JULY 2025 
CSIRO 
CARBON CAPTURE 
AND STORAGE

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CSIRO CCS IMPACT ASSESSMENT REPORT 01 
Content 
Executive Summary 
1. Introduction 
02 
03 
2. CSIRO's 25-Year Journey in CCS: A Synopsis 05 
3. Key Impact Areas 08 
Appendices 24 
3.1 Establishing Australia’s CCS Foundations 
3.2 Advancing CCS Science and Technology 
3.3 Underpinning Policy and Investment with Credibility 
3.4 Building National CCS Capability 
3.5 Building Public Trust and Social Licence 
3.6 Global Standing and International Influence 
3.7 Navigating the Path to Commercialisation

CSIRO CCS IMPACT ASSESSMENT REPORT 02 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 
A 25-YEAR LEGACY OF CONFIDENCE, CAPABILITY 
AND CREDIBILITY IN CCS 
For a quarter of a century, CSIRO has been a central and indispensable pillar in 
Australia's Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) journey. Through sustained, world-class 
research and development, CSIRO has been instrumental in transforming CCS from a 
theoretical promise into a feasible option, building a national legacy of scientific 
confidence, technical capability, and institutional credibility. This impact assessment, 
based on qualitative analysis of CSIRO’s project portfolio and extensive consultations 
with national and international stakeholders, evaluates CSIRO’s contributions to carbon 
capture and storage over the past 25 years. 
Key Areas of Impact 
The impact of CSIRO’s work is evident across several key areas. 
Establishing Australia’s CCS Foundations 
Contributed to early geological assessments to prove Australia's storage 
potential and pioneered the collaborative platforms that define the sector. 
Advancing CCS Science and Technology 
Developed novel capture solvents and world-leading monitoring techniques, 
establishing CSIRO as a global leader in CCS innovation. 
Underpinning Policy and Investment with Credibility 
Provided trusted, independent advice that gave governments the confidence 
to build regulatory frameworks and de-risk major project investments. 
Building National CCS Capability 
Forged a highly skilled workforce and a cross-sector network of experts that 
permeates Australian industry and academia today. 
Building Public Trust and Social Licence 
Acted as a key voice in building community confidence through transparent, 
evidence-based engagement and communication. 
Global Standing and International Influence 
Cemented Australia's reputation as a top-tier CCS research nation and 
became an influential partner in major international collaborations. 
Navigating the Path to Commercialisation 
Generated a portfolio of de-risked, commercial-ready technologies and invaluable 
expertise, preparing Australia for large-scale CCS deployment.

01 INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background and context 
1. INTRODUCTION 03 
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a 
suite of technologies designed to reduce 
carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions by capturing 
CO₂ from industrial sources or directly from 
the atmosphere, then transporting and 
permanently storing it underground. While 
the technology to separate CO₂ from 
industrial gas streams has existed for 
decades, its climate-mitigation relevance 
gained international prominence in the 
1990s, most notably with Norway’s Sleipner 
project, which began injecting approximately 
one million tonnes of CO₂ annually beneath 
the North Sea in 1996. 
CSIRO emerged early as a trailblazer in 
CCS research and development in 
Australia. Over the past quarter-century, 
CSIRO has undertaken a significant and 
sustained CCS journey. This was not an 
isolated scientific endeavour; it was a 
sustained national effort that, despite a 
dynamic and often volatile backdrop of 
shifting global energy paradigms and 
fluctuating domestic climate policies, has 
ultimately created a strategic national 
capability in CCS. 
This report presents the findings of a 
formal qualitative impact assessment of 
CSIRO’s CCS research. The assessment aims 
to answer the core questions: 
1.2 Purpose of this report 
From the initial explorations of geological storage potential to the operation of 
sophisticated pilot plants and the development of advanced monitoring techniques, 
CSIRO's work has played a critical role in strengthening the global capacity to evaluate 
and deploy CCS as part of broader climate change efforts. 
How has CSIRO contributed 
towards the CCS technology 
development, both in Australia 
and internationally? And 
specifically, what have CSIRO’s 
contributions been toward 
investigating CCS’ viability in 
contributing to net zero, and have 
they lowered the barriers to 
adoption for CCS in Australia? 
The findings are intended to serve two 
primary purposes: 
To understand CSIRO's 
contribution to CCS over the 
past 25 years 
To communicate and share the 
impact of CSIRO's sustained 
investment in CCS to key 
stakeholders

1. INTRODUCTION 04 
1.3 Scope and methodology 
01 INTRODUCTION 
This impact assessment examines CSIRO’s major research, demonstration and knowledgetransfer 
activities in CCS from 1999 to 2024. The impact assessment methodology was aligned 
with the CSIRO Impact Evaluation Guide and structured around four core activities. 
Program Logic and Impact Assessment Framework 
The assessment was guided by a formal Program Logic and Impact Assessment 
Framework, developed at the outset of the project. These tools provided a 
structured approach to map the causal links between CSIRO's research inputs, 
activities, and outcomes. Refer Appendix 2 for the program logic diagram. 
Stakeholder Consultations 
A two-stage stakeholder consultation process was conducted. Stage 1 involved a 
small set of interviews to understand stakeholders’ broad, system-level views of 
CSIRO’s contributions in CCS; Stage 2 comprised structured interviews drawn 
from three stakeholder groups across the 25-year period: Australian and 
international academic collaborators, domestic and international industry 
partners, and Australian Government agencies. 
Data Analysis and Reporting 
The qualitative data from the consultations were coded and analysed to identify 
key themes and impacts. The findings were consolidated into this final report, 
structured to address the assessment question. 
It is important to acknowledge the nature of the evidence gathered. The findings and 
narrative are primarily synthesised from the qualitative data gathered during the stakeholder 
consultations, and are therefore contingent on the insights provided by the stakeholders who 
agreed to participate. This report seeks to provide a balanced view, incorporating both 
positive and critical feedback from stakeholders. The assessment recognises that some of the 
identified "gaps," particularly regarding commercialisation outcomes, extend beyond CSIRO's 
primary institutional role. As Australia's national science agency, its focus is to drive longterm, 
foundational research that underpins innovation. In this context, its role is that of an 
enabler: supporting the translation and commercialisation of research rather than leading it 
(CSIRO Corporate Plan 2024-25). Therefore, findings that highlight a lack of commercial 
translation are not necessarily presented as a failing, but rather as a reflection of the 
organisation's strategic focus and the complex "valley of death" that exists between scientific 
innovation and industrial application. The analysis throughout this report is presented with 
this context in mind. 
Desktop Review 
A review of relevant documentation was undertaken to provide the foundation for 
the assessment. This included CSIRO-provided documents of its research journey, 
annual reports from partner organisations, technical reports, peer-reviewed 
publications, patents, government policy documents, and media release.

2. CSIRO's 25-Year Journey in CCS: A Synopsis 05 
02 CSIRO'S 25-YEAR JOURNEY 
IN CCS: A SYNOPSIS 
Over its 25-year journey, CSIRO’s involvement in CCS has evolved through distinct phases, 
shaped by shifting government policies, fluctuating investment landscapes, and the persistent 
dedication of its scientists. 
The Foundational Era (1999 – 2008): 
Building the Bedrock 
CSIRO’s formal entry into CCS began at the turn of the millennium, a period defined by 
establishing fundamental knowledge and building national capability from the ground up. 
The initial focus was on answering the primary question: Is CCS a viable option for 
Australia? The GEODISC program (1999-2003), conducted within the Australian Petroleum 
Cooperative Research Centre (APCRC), was a pivotal first step. This initiative provided the 
first comprehensive assessment of Australia's geological storage potential, establishing the 
now-implicit understanding that while Australia possesses vast storage resources, they are 
not always co-located with major emission sources. This era fostered a spirit of national 
collaboration, creating a collaborative environment between researchers, industry, and 
government that would prove essential for future progress. 
The establishment of the CO2CRC in 2003 institutionalised this collaborative approach, 
with CSIRO as a critical founding research partner. This collaboration led to the creation of 
the Otway International Test Centre, a world-renowned facility that became the epicentre 
of Australia’s storage research. CSIRO’s international engagement also began in earnest 
during this period, with scientists participating in early international projects like the Frio 
Brine Pilot Experiment in Texas (2004-2006). This early cross-pollination of ideas and 
expertise helped position Australia on the global CCS stage. 
On the carbon capture front, CSIRO initiated its long-term research into aqueous aminebased 
absorbent technologies in 2004. This foundational work in the laboratory soon 
transitioned to the field with the establishment of Australia’s first post-combustion capture 
(PCC) pilot plants, including a key collaboration on the Huaneng Beijing Co-generation 
Power Plant (2007-2009) and the commissioning of the Loy Yang Power PCC Pilot Plant 
(2008). This era was characterised by building scientific credibility, developing core 
expertise, and proving the basic technical feasibility of CCS in an Australian context.

2. CSIRO's 25-Year Journey in CCS: A Synopsis 06 
02 CSIRO'S 25-YEAR JOURNEY 
IN CCS: A SYNOPSIS 
The Flagship Era (2009 – 2016): 
Accelerated Investment and Activity 
Following the foundational work, this period was marked by a surge in government 
investment and a significant acceleration of research and development activity. The launch 
of the Australian Government's CCS Flagships Program provided substantial funding, 
enabling a move towards larger, more complex demonstration projects. CSIRO was a critical 
science and technology partner for these flagships, providing foundational scientific 
research and applied R&D to support both industry and government collaborators. 
This era also saw CSIRO collaborate with industry partners to establish a proliferation of 
PCC pilot plants at major coal-fired power stations, such as Tarong, Munmorah, and Vales 
Point. These facilities were crucial for testing and optimising capture solvents under realworld 
conditions, particularly addressing the challenges posed by the unique impurities in 
Australian flue gas. This hands-on experience cemented CSIRO’s reputation as a global 
leader in solvent-based capture R&D. 
Simultaneously, storage research advanced significantly. CSIRO scientists took on 
leadership roles across multiple phases of the CO2CRC Otway Project, including Stage 1 
and Stage 2. Their work focused on the complex mechanisms of CO₂ trapping in both 
depleted gas fields and saline formations. This work provided unprecedented insights and 
de-risked geological CO₂ storage, a critical step for large-scale deployment. The Flagships 
program also catalysed major site characterisation projects like the South West Hub in 
Western Australia, CarbonNet in Victoria, and the CTSCo Project in Queensland, with 
CSIRO providing essential geoscience expertise for all three. 
International collaboration also deepened through initiatives like the China-Australia 
Geological Storage of CO₂ (CAGS) Project, a Geoscience Australia-led initiative with CSIRO 
participation, which focused on capacity building and accelerating deployment in both 
nations. The global engagement was exemplified by CSIRO's deep and continuous 
involvement with the IEAGHG R&D Programme. CSIRO experts were integral to IEAGHG's 
expert networks, conference committees, and Summer School, authoring key technical 
reports and cementing Australia's scientific leadership on the world stage 
While this was a period of great optimism and activity, some stakeholders noted a gradual 
shift from the collaborative approach of the early years to a more competitive landscape, as 
various projects and institutions vied for funding and prominence.

2. CSIRO's 25-Year Journey in CCS: A Synopsis 07 
02 CSIRO'S 25-YEAR JOURNEY 
IN CCS: A SYNOPSIS 
A Shifting Landscape (2017 – Present): 
Maturing Capability Amidst Uncertainty 
The most recent era has been defined by a more challenging and uncertain political and 
funding environment. Shifting government priorities and a waning public focus on CCS led 
to reduced investment, creating a "valley of death" between pilot-scale demonstration and 
full commercial deployment. 
Despite these headwinds, CSIRO’s capability matured significantly. The organisation’s role 
evolved from primary research to providing expert technical advice, de-risking projects, 
and informing policy. This is evidenced by its contributions to the amendment of the 
Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Act, which is a critical step in establishing the 
domestic legal framework for CCS in Commonwealth waters and enabling the 
transboundary movement of CO₂, and the development of strategic roadmaps for CO₂ 
Utilisation, the WA CCUS Hubs, and the Northern Territory Low Emission Hub. 
On the ground, the South West Hub site evolved into the In-Situ Laboratory, a 
sophisticated field-testing facility run in collaboration with state, federal, and international 
partners like Japan’s RITE, focusing on advanced monitoring and fault behaviour. The PICA 
Project, a partnership with AGL and IHI, demonstrated the potential of advanced solvents 
to significantly reduce the energy penalty of capture. 
This period also highlighted the challenges of commercialisation. While CSIRO’s solvent 
technology continued to advance and achieve world-class results, limited domestic 
investment support meant that commercialisation opportunities frequently moved 
overseas. Nonetheless, the sustained research effort ensured that Australia retained 
substantial expertise and a suite of validated technologies, ready for deployment as the 
policy landscape begins to shift once more in favour of CCS as an essential tool for 
achieving net-zero emissions.

03
KEY IMPACT 
AREAS 
3. Key Impact Areas 08 
3.1 Establishing Australia’s CCS Foundations 
3.2 Advancing CCS Science and Technology 
3.3 Underpinning Policy and Investment with Credibility 
3.4 Building National CCS Capability 
3.5 Building Public Trust and Social Licence 
3.6 Global Standing and International Influence 
3.7 Navigating the Path to Commercialisation 
From Theoretical Promise to Operational Reality 
Leadership in CCS R&D 
De-risking Projects and Informing Government 
Creating Skilled Workforce and Cross-Sector Expertise 
Engaging Communities Through Evidence-Based Outreach 
CSIRO’s Role in the International CCS Community 
Bridging the Valley of Death

3.1 
FROM THEORETICAL PROMISE TO OPERATIONAL REALITY 
CSIRO was an indispensable partner from the very beginning of CCS research in Australia, 
playing a central role in the foundational work that established the technology’s scientific 
viability and built the confidence necessary for subsequent investment. Stakeholders 
consistently identify this early contribution as one of CSIRO's most critical and enduring 
legacies. CSIRO's journey in CCS began in 1999, when CCS was largely a theoretical concept in 
Australia, and its involvement was pivotal in building the foundational knowledge and 
collaborative structures that transformed CCS from a promising idea into a field of 
operational research. This was achieved through a deeply collaborative ethos, 
institutionalised through its role in two key initiatives: the GEODISC program and the CO2CRC. 
ESTABLISHING AUSTRALIA’S 
CCS FOUNDATIONS 
3.1 Establishing Australia’s CCS Foundations 09 
The GEODISC Program: 
Charting the National Potential 
The GEODISC program, an initiative under the APCRC, represented the nation's first major foray 
into understanding its potential for geological CO₂ storage. As a foundational partner alongside 
Geoscience Australia, CSIRO’s deep expertise in petroleum reservoir dynamics, hydrology, and 
geochemistry was essential to the program’s success. 
This pioneering work established a crucial fact that has shaped Australian CCS strategy ever since: 
Australia possesses abundant geological storage capacity, even if it is not always co-located with 
major emission sources. The program was also pivotal in fostering a nationally-focused, 
collaborative model that brought together key Australian institutions and international partners. 
The CO2CRC Collaboration: 
Institutionalising Collaboration 
This foundation was solidified in 2003 with the establishment of the Cooperative Research Centre 
for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC), where CSIRO was a critical founding research 
partner. The CO2CRC model was highly effective, bringing together universities, industry, and 
government to tackle the challenges of CCS. 
A key impact of this model was its ability to harmonise the highly competitive environment that 
often exists between research institutions, allowing them to work together under a single banner. 
This enabled CO2CRC to leverage deep scientific expertise of CSIRO and other partners, creating a 
whole far greater than the sum of its parts. The success of the CO2CRC's collaborative model in 
carbon storage, combined with CSIRO's parallel, independent research in carbon capture, is 
widely seen as the reason for Australia's initial leadership position in the global CCS community. 
The Otway International Test Centre: 
From Foundation to Global Benchmark 
The globally recognised success of the Otway International Test Centre is a direct testament to 
the power of the CO2CRC's integrated model. With CSIRO as an important scientific partner, the 
facility became a world-leading site for demonstrating safe and effective CO₂ storage, widely 
regarded by international peers as a "global benchmark" and a "trendsetter" in storage science. 
The primary impact of this work was to de-risk the technology by proving that safe geological 
storage was not just a theory, but a practical reality. The tangible evidence and confidence 
generated at Otway were instrumental in enabling subsequent commercial projects. Both industry 
and research stakeholders confirmed that the ability to point to the successful injection and 
monitoring programs at Otway, underpinned by CSIRO’s scientific leadership, was a decisive 
factor in satisfying regulators and securing the crucial approvals for CCS projects that followed.

3.2 
LEADERSHIP IN CCS R&D 
Over 25 years, CSIRO has established itself as a global leader in the foundational science 
of CCS. CSIRO has built a formidable reputation for high-quality research with depth, 
rigour and continuity. CSIRO’s research has not only advanced the technological frontier 
but has also been instrumental in de-risking CCS for potential deployment globally. This 
leadership is evident across both capture and storage domains, from pioneering new 
capture chemistries to developing world-benchmark methods for monitoring stored CO₂. 
CSIRO’s work has bridged laboratory research and field deployment, building confidence 
in the technical feasibility, safety, and scalability of CCS. 
ADVANCING CCS SCIENCE 
AND TECHNOLOGY 
3.2.1 Carbon Capture 
CSIRO has been a leading innovator in 
solvent-based carbon capture, underpinned 
by an extensive portfolio of patents on novel 
absorbents such as aqueous amines, ionic 
liquids, and advanced process configurations. 
CSIRO’s independent carbon capture research 
began in earnest around 2004 and has since 
made substantial contributions to the global 
understanding of PCC, especially in the 
context of Australia’s unique energy profile. 
Stakeholders emphasised CSIRO’s 
foundational work in solvent screening, which 
produced one of the first publicly available 
data sets comparing amine performance 
under real flue gas conditions. 
3.2 Advancing CCS Science and Technology 10 
CSIRO focused on a critical research niche 
that global competitors were not addressing; 
developing solvents suited to Australia’s 
high-sulphur, high-ash 'dirty' flue gas from 
brown coal. This strategic focus addressed a 
global knowledge gap and positioned CSIRO 
at the forefront of solving complex industrial 
capture challenges. 
These pilot plants provided bankable 
data on operational costs and solvent 
performance, created crucial cost 
certainty for potential investors, and built 
the operational expertise necessary for 
commercial-scale planning, successfully 
demonstrating the technical feasibility 
and reliability of PCC technology. 
These plants were not just proof-ofconcept 
but also became field 
laboratories, exposing solvents to live flue 
gas from black and brown coal. This 
process uncovered fundamental chemical 
challenges, with a prime example being 
the work at the Tarong pilot plant. 
Stakeholders described this work as a 
major contribution to the global 
understanding of how nitrogen dioxide 
(NO₂) in flue gas degrades amine solvents 
and creates harmful nitrosamines, a 
discovery that helped explain solvent 
losses observed in multiple pilot plants 
globally and would have been impossible 
to comprehensively assess at a laboratory 
scale. 
CSIRO’s work also demonstrated the ability to 
translate laboratory science into "steel-in-theground" 
pilot plants operating in real-world 
industrial environments. International experts 
consistently acknowledge that Australia, led by 
CSIRO, entered the pilot-scale testing phase 
ahead of many global peers. The series of pilot 
plants, at Huaneng in China, and at the Loy 
Yang, Tarong, and Vales Point power stations 
in Australia, were among the largest and most 
ambitious of their time. 
While these foundational pilot plants 
focused on coal-fired power, the 
knowledge gained and the PCC technology 
itself are directly applicable to other hardto-
abate sectors such as cement and steel 
manufacturing, where CCS remains an 
essential decarbonisation pathway.

CASE STUDY 
A Landmark International Carbon Capture Collaboration: 
The Huaneng Beijing PCC Pilot Plant 
3.2 Advancing CCS Science and Technology 11 
The Huaneng Beijing pilot plant stands out as a landmark international collaboration 
and a key demonstration of CSIRO's technical leadership and its role in global 
knowledge transfer. The project was funded via the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean 
Development and Climate (APP) initiative, bringing together CSIRO's capture 
technology expertise with the resources and operational knowledge of its partners, 
China's Huaneng Group and its Clean Energy Research Institute. The collaboration 
involved Huaneng Group providing the host site at a major cogeneration power plant 
in Beijing, while CSIRO contributed its leading amine-based solvent technology knowhow 
and operational expertise. Stakeholders noted that CSIRO's prior operational 
experience at its Loy Yang pilot plant was a key factor, with the Chinese team 
receiving valuable training in Australia before the Beijing plant was commissioned. 
The plant achieved its design goal of capturing 3,000 tonnes of CO₂ annually, 
operating reliably for over a year with a capture rate exceeding 85% and producing 
CO₂ with 99.99% purity. The project's impact was multi-layered and significant: 
Demonstration and 
Technology Transfer 
The project successfully 
demonstrated the practical 
application of Australianled 
PCC technology in a 
major coal-dependent 
economy. Stakeholders 
noted that the 
collaboration played a 
great role in promoting 
carbon capture technology 
transfer and knowledge 
sharing between Australia 
and China, highlighting the 
project's importance in 
facilitating crucial 
technology transfer with 
what they termed "the 
most important country in 
the world in terms of CO₂ 
emissions". 
Building Global 
Networks 
The collaboration created 
lasting international 
networks. Stakeholders 
noted that the established 
CSIRO-Huaneng 
relationship was 
instrumental in helping US 
organisations and 
government bodies to 
subsequently engage with 
China on CCS development. 
Key personnel from the 
project have gone on to 
lead international 
standardisation efforts 
within the International 
Standardisation 
Organisation (ISO), directly 
extending the legacy of the 
collaboration into current 
global forums. 
A Model for 
International R&D 
The project served as a 
powerful model for 
international scientific 
diplomacy, demonstrating 
how Australian R&D could 
be leveraged to build 
capability and accelerate 
decarbonisation efforts 
globally. 
"CSIRO presented a compelling case of why we should be looking to trial ... it was all 
about taking the research from the laboratory to applied research in a real-world 
situation, and that's probably the greatest strength of CSIRO." 
- Roland Davies, former Business Development Lead at AGL Loy Yang

3.2 
LEADERSHIP IN CCS R&D 
ADVANCING CCS SCIENCE 
AND TECHNOLOGY 
3.2.2 Carbon Storage 
CSIRO’s leadership in carbon storage science is 
pronounced and has delivered direct, tangible 
impacts on major research and commercial 
projects. Stakeholders unanimously view 
CSIRO’s carbon storage research as its most 
significant global contribution to the CCS field, 
establishing Australia as a top-tier leader in 
the science of geological sequestration. This 
leadership is built on a foundation of 
characterising national resources, pioneering 
fundamental research into the mechanisms of 
dissolution and residual trapping that provide 
for permanent storage security, and 
developing new technologies for monitoring 
and verification. 
3.2 Advancing CCS Science and Technology 12 
The technical expertise developed in 
Australia has also been actively exported, 
and CSIRO’s storage science is now 
embedded in global practice, with 
learnings and methodologies being 
integrated into project designs and 
regulatory submissions in Canada, 
Germany, and across East Asia. 
Furthermore, key synthesis papers on 
MM&V progress authored by CSIRO 
researchers are now considered the "goto 
citation" and "benchmark paper" that 
international project developers and 
regulators use when drafting their 
monitoring strategies and permitting 
applications. This demonstrates a strong 
culture of two-way knowledge exchange, 
with CSIRO importing and adapting 
promising international technologies 
while contributing its world-leading 
carbon storage innovations back to the 
global community. 
Beginning with the GEODISC program, CSIRO, 
in partnership with Geoscience Australia, 
performed the foundational scientific work of 
characterising Australia's geological basins. 
This created a national "atlas" of storage 
potential that provided the essential 
knowledge base, such as injectivity thresholds, 
containment profiles, and regional feasibility 
models, for all subsequent storage projects 
and strategic government initiatives. 
CSIRO has consistently led innovation in 
storage monitoring techniques. Its work at the 
Otway International Test Centre and the WA 
In-Situ Laboratory is considered "trendsetting" 
by international peers and has produced big 
breakthroughs in Monitoring, Measurement, 
and Verification (MM&V). These MM&V 
innovations have had a profound and 
quantifiable impact on the economics of CCS. 
Stakeholders noted that the application 
of these CSIRO-developed techniques 
can reduce the predicted lifetime cost 
of storage monitoring by up to 80% 
compared to conventional methods. 
This cost reduction is a critical enabler 
that directly improves project NPV, 
helping future commercial projects 
overcome investment hurdles.

CASE STUDY 
The Otway International Test Centre: 
A Global Benchmark in Storage Science 
3.2 Advancing CCS Science and Technology 13 
The Otway International Test Centre is arguably the crown jewel of Australia's CCS 
research effort and a testament to CSIRO's contribution as a key research partner in 
the CO2CRC. The project’s orderly progression, from early tests in a depleted gas field 
(Stage 1) to more advanced work in saline formations (Stages 2 & 3), is lauded by 
international peers as a model for systematically de-risking geological storage. Over 
its lifetime, the project has successfully injected over 100,000 tonnes of CO₂, 
demonstrating safe, long-term containment and serving as a unique "global facility" 
for developing and validating new technologies. 
As a key scientific partner, CSIRO's scientific and project leadership was instrumental in 
integrating and validating a suite of world-first monitoring techniques at Otway. This 
collaborative environment, allowed for key innovations to be trialled: 
The successful 
deployment of sparse 
seismic surveys using 
orbital vibrators, a more 
cost-effective and less 
invasive monitoring 
method, led by Curtin 
University. 
The Stage 2 residual 
trapping test, providing 
real-world data on CO₂ 
immobilisation, driven 
by CSIRO’s advanced 
reservoir modelling 
capabilities. 
The development of 
pressure tomography, 
using pressure as a 
primary tool to image 
plume movement, a 
technique pioneered by 
CSIRO researchers. 
The real-world value of this work is best exemplified by its direct influence on the 
Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project in Western Australia, one of the world's 
largest commercial CCS operations. Multiple senior industry and research 
stakeholders confirmed that the ability to point to the successful demonstration of 
safe injection and monitoring at Otway was a "powerful argument" and a key "pillar in 
the approval" for the Gorgon project. This provides a direct and undeniable line of 
sight from CSIRO's foundational research to the enablement of a multi-billion-dollar 
commercial decarbonisation project. 
The Link to Commercial Impact 
"To have confidence that we can monitor the CO2 in the subsurface... There are a 
couple of papers in particular that Charles Jenkins was an author on...For example, his 
paper in 2015 [The state of the art in monitoring and verification—ten years on] 
summed up 10 years of progress since the IPCC Special Report in 2005... And that's a 
benchmark paper in itself." 
- Tim Dixon, General Manager, IEAGHG

3.3 
DE-RISKING PROJECTS AND INFORMING GOVERNMENT 
UNDERPINNING POLICY AND 
INVESTMENT WITH CREDIBILITY 
Over the past two decades, CSIRO has played 
a pivotal role in enabling CCS investment and 
shaping policy via its unique combination of 
scientific authority, institutional neutrality, 
and deep technical expertise. Stakeholders 
consistently identified the "CSIRO Badge" as 
a powerful enabler. 
3.3 Underpinning Policy and Investment with Credibility 14 
CSIRO has also served as a critical knowledge 
provider to Australian governments at the 
federal and state levels, offering scientific 
input on storage potential, capture 
feasibility, and regulatory design. Senior 
government officials described a positive 
and responsive engagement with CSIRO's 
technical teams, through initiatives such as 
the CO₂ Utilisation Roadmap, the WA CCUS 
Hubs study, and technical advice on the Sea 
Dumping Act, where CSIRO's work served as 
a valuable and credible input that directly 
informed departmental strategy. Several 
stakeholders noted that CSIRO’s data and 
technical analysis provided the evidence 
base for progressing policy options that 
might otherwise have stalled due to 
uncertainty or lack of credibility. 
This credibility has had a direct and tangible 
impact on project viability. Stakeholders 
noted that departments often "pay a 
premium for CSIRO’s work specifically for the 
credibility," as their involvement decreases 
doubts over scientific rigour and impartiality. 
Industry stakeholders also cited CSIRO’s 
independent analysis and endorsement as 
decisive factors in unlocking capital for key 
pilot projects. By providing trusted, thirdparty 
techno-economic data, CSIRO helps 
partners overcome commercial sensitivities 
and build the confidence required for Boardlevel 
and government investment approvals. 
CSIRO is recognised not only for its 
technical capabilities but also for its 
reputational value: a “credibility 
multiplier” that lends legitimacy to CCS 
projects, de-risks investment decisions, 
and provides an impartial evidence base 
for policy development. 
However, this influence is not without its 
limitations. Multiple senior stakeholders 
identified an "influence gap." While 
technical engagement at the officer-toscientist 
level is described as excellent, 
stakeholders noted limited direct contact 
with CSIRO on CCS at a strategic, 
ministerial-advisory level. Also, many 
stakeholders observed that CSIRO has 
been a "muted voice" in the broader 
public debate. While its non-advocacy 
stance is understood as a function of its 
institutional role, this has limited its 
ability to leverage its powerful brand to 
counter public misinformation and shape 
a more evidence-based national 
discourse on CCS.

CASE STUDY 
The WA CCUS Hubs Study: 
From Science to State Strategy 
3.3 Underpinning Policy and Investment with Credibility 15 
The WA CCUS Hubs Study project is a clear example of CSIRO translating its technical 
authority into direct policy and investment impact. Commissioned by Western 
Australian LNG Jobs Taskforce, CSIRO partnered with the Global CCS Institute (GCCSI) 
to evaluate the feasibility of developing large-scale Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and 
Storage (CCUS) hubs in Western Australia, focusing on decarbonising high-emission 
industries like natural gas processing, cement, and fertiliser production. 
CSIRO, in collaboration with the Global CCS Institute, provided the core subsurface 
storage identification and techno-economic analysis needed to underpin the WA 
Government’s strategic planning for a multi-user CCS hub. Stakeholders noted that 
access to CSIRO's deep technical knowledge and its trusted brand as an "authoritative 
source of information" was essential for the government to assess the long-term 
viability of shared infrastructure and validate the feasibility of hub-scale storage. 
The report delivered by the collaboration had direct and tangible impacts. 
Policy Development 
The study's findings 
projected the creation 
of approximately 37,000 
construction jobs and 
500 permanent 
positions, directly 
informing the 
development of the WA 
Government's CCS 
Action Plan. 
Investment Signal Government Investment 
The report acted as a 
crucial "investment 
signal" to international 
proponents, confirming 
that the state was a 
prospective and credible 
location for major 
private investment in 
carbon storage. 
The confidence 
provided by the report 
led directly to the WA 
Government 
announcing a $4.3 
million investment to 
help establish a worldleading 
CCUS industry 
in the state. 
"The involvement of an organisation like CSIRO in advancing carbon capture and carbon 
storage projects in Australia has helped reduce uncertainty around domestic technology 
development capability. This, in turn, has increased policymakers' confidence to pursue 
CCS, underpinned by the credibility and research expertise of CSIRO."

3.4 
A LEGACY OF INFRASTRUCTURE & EXPERTISE 
BUILDING NATIONAL 
CCS CAPABILITY 
One of CSIRO’s most critical and enduring impacts has been its central role in building 
Australia’s sovereign capability in CCS. Over 25 years, its programs have created two 
invaluable national assets essential for any future deployment of CCS projects under 
Australia’s local conditions. 
3.4 Building National CCS Capability 16 
A portfolio of world-class 
research infrastructure 
A highly skilled and 
experienced workforce 
CSIRO has also served as an anchor institution, enabling public and private sector to become 
more “CCS-literate” via hands-on learning, access to shared infrastructure, or trusted technical 
advice. Its contribution extends far beyond its own staff; many of engineers, geologists, and 
policy professionals leading CCS efforts across Australia have been trained by, worked 
alongside, or drawn directly on the outputs of CSIRO’s programs. 
The primary vehicle for this capability building has been direct, hands-on experience. CSIRO’s 
extensive pilot plant programs did more than just test technology; they acted as real-world 
training grounds. Industry partners noted that seconding their own engineers and technical 
staff to projects at CSIRO’s pilot plants, such as at Loy Yang, Tarong, and Vales Point, was 
invaluable. This experiential learning transformed them from passive buyers into 
"knowledgeable customers," equipping them with deep expertise in areas like corrosion 
control, solvent management, and modular rig logistics. 
Hands-on Experience: 
Real-World Training Grounds 
Cross-Sectoral Benefits: 
Spill-over Innovation 
The capability developed through CSIRO's CCS research has generated significant benefits for 
other critical Australian industries. For example, advanced monitoring techniques validated in 
collaborative projects involving CSIRO, such as the fibre-optic and seismic methods, are now 
being adapted by service companies for use in minerals exploration and groundwater 
management. Similarly, the deep understanding of Australia's geological basins, developed for 
storage characterisation, is a valuable asset for the broader resources industry. Through this 
multi-pronged approach, CSIRO has been instrumental in creating a domestic skill base that 
lowers risk for future hubs and anchors high-value technical work inside Australia. 
Foundational Assets: 
A Portfolio of Research Facilities 
CSIRO has played a key role in establishing a portfolio of critical, large-scale research 
infrastructure, such as field-scale sites like the Otway International Test Centre (as a key 
partner in the CO2CRC) and the In-Situ Laboratory in Western Australia, which serve as realworld 
environments for developing and de-risking storage and monitoring technologies. 
CSIRO was also a central partner in establishing the National Geosequestration Laboratory 
(NGL), which attracted $48.4 million in funding to create a national network of laboratory and 
field-testing infrastructure for government and industry to minimise the risk and uncertainty 
regarding geological storage options for CO₂.

CASE STUDY 
From Carbon Storage to Minerals Exploration: 
Cross-Sector Capability Spill-over 
3.4 Building National CCS Capability 17 
A key, and often overlooked, impact of CSIRO’s research in CCS has been the spillover 
of its advanced technical capabilities into other vital Australian industries. This 
ripple effect, originating from a single point of research, is now creating value across 
the Australian economy. 
The best example to illustrate the impact is the suite of innovations recently trialled 
at the Otway International Test Centre. To solve CCS-specific monitoring challenges in 
a more cost-effective and less invasive way, new high-resolution methods for 
characterising the subsurface were developed and validated in a partnership 
between CSIRO, CO2CRC and Curtin University. These methods included Curtin’s 
sparse seismic surveys and advanced fibre-optic acoustic sensing, and CSIRO’s 
advanced pressure interpretation methods. These advances were built on earlier 
research collaborations at Otway. 
Commercial Application & Spill-over 
The impact of this work now extends well beyond CCS, with Australian service 
companies actively adapting these workflows for their own commercial applications: 
Minerals Exploration: Techniques are being used to improve the 
efficiency of minerals exploration. 
Groundwater Management: Methods are being applied to better 
understand and manage vital water resources. 
A Broader National Asset 
As multiple stakeholders pointed out, this work extends well beyond its initial scope; 
it also helps to uncover the "full resource potential of the ground beneath us." 
By mapping Australia’s geology for storage needs, CSIRO has produced a rich 
national dataset and a powerful toolkit that together sharpen the competitive edge 
of the wider resources sector. 
This case study demonstrates that the national capability built through CSIRO's CCS 
research is not siloed. The investment has cultivated deep expertise and innovative 
technologies that are now generating value and enhancing productivity in other key 
sectors of the Australian economy, representing a significant and enduring return on 
the nation's long-term investment in science. 
"They [CSIRO] have been engaged in hosting these young engineers and students. They 
have a very strong postdoc programme; they have very strong student internship 
programmes... I was engaged with them and their student exchange programmes, and 
four or five of my graduate students spent time at CSIRO in Newcastle and Melbourne 
working on carbon capture." 
- Mohammad Abu Zahra, Head of Middle East & Africa, Global CCS Institute

3.5 
EVIDENCE-BASED COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND OUTREACH 
BUILDING PUBLIC TRUST 
AND SOCIAL LICENCE 
3.5 Building Public Trust and Social Licence 18 
Public trust is a critical enabler of CCS 
deployment, especially where projects involve 
subsurface activity near communities. CSIRO 
has played a vital role in shaping Australia’s 
approach to social licence, offering sciencebased 
engagement practices that foster 
transparency and credibility. 
Stakeholders emphasised that CSIRO's 
status as a non-commercial, government 
science agency was the primary driver of 
this trust. The intellectual foundation for 
much of this work was provided by former 
CSIRO social scientist Professor Peta 
Ashworth, who was identified by 
international peers as a "world leader" in 
the field during her time at the 
organisation. Her research into social 
licence and public perception provided the 
rigorous academic framework that guided 
CSIRO's successful community engagement 
strategies for many years. 
This strategy has been particularly effective 
at the local level, with stakeholders 
highlighting the strong community reception 
at key project sites where CSIRO played a 
significant, though varied, role. At Otway, for 
example, CSIRO was a crucial scientific 
partner in supporting the CO2CRC-led 
sustained, respectful engagement with local 
farmers that turned potential opposition into 
active support. CSIRO took primary 
responsibility for community engagement at 
projects it led, such as the South West Hub 
and the subsequent WA In-Situ Laboratory. 
CSIRO’s outreach strategy was praised for its 
use of tangible tools that demystified 
complex science, such as innovative site 
tours and hands-on demonstrations that 
made subsurface processes visible and 
understandable. 
Stakeholders who have worked directly 
with CSIRO on community engagement for 
projects offered very positive feedback. 
They praised the organisation for “doing 
engagement right” - focusing on data and 
dialogue rather than promotion. This 
approach built on CSIRO's trusted, nonadvocacy 
brand; and has helped set a tone 
for CCS engagement in Australia. 
Many stakeholders noted a significant 
disconnect between this success at the 
local level and the broader national 
conversation. They widely agree that a 
more proactive national communication 
strategy is needed to counter a 
"derogative narrative" and rising public 
misinformation about CCS. 
While effective in host communities, 
CSIRO's evidence-based voice has 
struggled to penetrate a highly polarised 
national discourse, representing a 
strategic gap where the organisation's 
trusted brand could be more effectively 
leveraged to "win hearts and minds 
nationally" and build the broad social 
licence necessary for future large-scale 
deployment.

CASE STUDY 
The CarbonNet “Tim Tam Milkshake” Outreach: 
Making Pore-space Storage Tangible 
3.5 Building Public Trust and Social Licence 19 
As part of the community engagement activities for the CarbonNet project in Victoria’s 
Gippsland region, CSIRO collaborated with project partners to design and deliver 
innovative tools for public communication. A standout example was the “Tim Tam 
milkshake” demonstration, a simple but powerful analogy used to explain subsurface 
CO₂ storage and make the concept tangible for the community. 
The demonstration was highly effective in its simplicity. A Tim Tam biscuit was used 
to represent a porous rock formation (the storage reservoir), while milk represented 
the supercritical CO₂ being injected. The biscuit’s outer chocolate coating 
symbolised the impermeable caprock layer that keeps the CO₂ trapped securely 
beneath the surface. By dipping the biscuit into the milk, the team could visually 
demonstrate how CO₂ occupies the pore spaces within the rock while remaining 
safely contained by the seal, mimicking how geological trapping works in real-world 
storage scenarios. These simple and clear demonstrations were highly effective at 
turning an abstract scientific process into something that local communities, 
students, and policymakers could see and feel. 
The impact of this type of evidence-based, hands-on engagement was profound, 
building a crucial foundation of trust and understanding. Stakeholders cited that 
CSIRO’s broader evidence and engagement work on CarbonNet provided government 
officers and investors the confidence that the project was technically viable and that 
its risks were manageable. This assurance was critical and is seen as having directly 
"kept the project on track," ensuring its continuation despite political headwinds. This 
provides a direct line of sight from CSIRO's community-level science communication to 
the sustained progress of a major national decarbonisation initiative. 
"In a complex and contested space like CCS, CSIRO has the depth of expertise needed 
to provide authoritative, objective advice on the readiness of the technology and its 
deployment globally." 
- Amanda Caples, Victoria's Lead Scientist

3.6 
CSIRO’S ROLE IN THE INTERNATIONAL CCS COMMUNITY 
GLOBAL STANDING AND 
INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCE 
3.6 Global Standing and International Influence 20 
CSIRO's international engagement has remained a consistent and powerful strength 
throughout its 25-year journey. Stakeholders from North America, Europe, Asia, and 
multinational institutions repeatedly pointed to CSIRO as a benchmark-setting organisation 
and a top-tier global player in CCS research. Its strong global brand and undisputed technical 
credibility have allowed it to build and maintain a network of impactful international 
partnerships, even during periods of waning domestic policy support. 
This influence is demonstrated through three key pillars. 
Pillar 1: 
Foundational 
Collaboration 
From the early stages, 
CSIRO established a 
precedent for a two-way 
knowledge exchange, 
adapting international 
technologies while 
exporting its own 
validated methods back 
to the global community. 
For example, CSIRO 
scientists participated in 
the landmark Frio Brine 
Pilot Experiment in 
Texas in 2004, a 
collaboration that was 
highly valued by US 
partners and helped 
shape the research 
protocols for Australia's 
own programs. 
Pillar 2: 
Global Policy 
Shaping 
CSIRO's standing has 
enabled it to exert 
significant influence on 
global climate science and 
policy. For example, CSIRO 
has provided direct 
technical advice to the 
scientific group of the 
London Protocol, the 
international treaty 
governing the world's 
oceans. This work, 
focusing on CO₂ stream 
purity and its potential 
impact on the marine 
environment, has helped 
shape the global 
conversation on 
transboundary regulations 
for CO₂ storage. 
Pillar 3: 
Forum & Network 
Leadership 
CSIRO's role as a key 
representative for 
Australia in multilateral 
forums has been critical 
for keeping Australian 
science at the cutting 
edge and ensuring a vital 
channel for knowledge 
exchange. This is best 
demonstrated through its 
generous participation in 
the International Test 
Centre Network (ITCN), 
and CSIRO scientists’ 
leadership roles on the 
steering committees of 
prestigious bodies like 
the IEAGHG expert 
networks and the GHGT 
conference series. 
This multi-faceted engagement has ensured that Australian research is represented, 
respected, and embedded in the evolution of CCS globally.

CASE STUDY 
The 2019 IEAGHG Technical Report: 
Breaking the 90% Capture Rate Cap 
3.6 Global Standing and International Influence 21 
This initiative is a prime example of CSIRO leveraging its technical authority to shift 
the global scientific and policy conversation on CCS. In 2019, CSIRO, led by Paul 
Feron, authored a landmark technical study for the IEAGHG that systematically 
dismantled the long-held global assumption that 90% was the practical and economic 
limit for CO₂ capture rates. 
Leveraging its deep knowledge of solvent chemistry and plant integration from its 
extensive pilot-plant program, CSIRO conducted the core techno-economic analysis 
for the report, "Towards Zero Emissions CCS from Power Stations using Higher 
Capture Rates or Biomass". The study’s key findings were transformative: 
It established that the 90% capture rate was not a 
technical barrier but rather an "artificial limit" based on 
historical economics. 
It demonstrated through detailed modelling that achieving 
near-zero emissions was technically feasible and 
surprisingly affordable: 
For an ultra-supercritical coal plant, reaching 99.7% 
capture increased the levelised cost of electricity 
(LCOE) by only 7% compared to the 90% baseline case. 
For a natural gas plant, reaching 99% capture also 
resulted in only a 7% LCOE increase. 
According to senior international stakeholders, this highly influential report provided 
the definitive evidence base that allowed both the Intergovernmental Panel on 
Climate Change (IPCC) and the International Energy Agency (IEA) to update their global 
mitigation pathway models. By demonstrating that the 90% capture-rate cap was 
outdated, CSIRO’s work was instrumental in restoring high-capture CCS as a viable 
long-term decarbonisation option in the world’s most critical climate and energy 
scenarios. This provides a clear line of sight from CSIRO's technical analysis to a direct 
and significant impact on the international scientific consensus. 
"From working directly with us then, CSIRO has been one of the world's leading research 
institutes on CCS. Our GHGT conference Technical Programme Committee always has 2 
people on it from CSIRO out of the 11. So that says a lot. I think always at the leading 
edge." [GHGT is the largest global conference on CCS] 
- Tim Dixon, General Manager, IEAGHG

3.7 
BRIDGING THE VALLEY OF DEATH 
NAVIGATING THE PATH TO 
COMMERCIALISATION 
3.7 Navigating the Path to Commercialisation 22 
While CSIRO has demonstrated world-class 
scientific and technical leadership in CCS, the 
translation of this research into widespread 
commercial deployment represents one of 
the most significant and complex challenges 
of its journey. The path from a successful 
pilot plant to a commercially viable, largescale 
operation is fraught with obstacles, 
often referred to as the "valley of death." 
This is a critical gap where promising 
technologies can falter due to a lack of 
investment, uncertain market signals, and 
inconsistent policy support. 
Stakeholders consistently identified that the 
primary barrier to CCS commercialisation in 
Australia has not been a failure of the 
technology itself, but the absence of a highvalue 
business case for industry. The high 
capital cost of CCS projects, combined with a 
volatile policy environment that has lacked a 
consistent carbon price or equivalent longterm 
incentive, has made it difficult for 
industry to commit to the multi-billion-dollar 
investments required. Without clear market 
signals, there has been insufficient 
commercial pull to draw CSIRO's innovations 
out of the pilot phase. However, stakeholders 
noted that for CCS, this ‘valley’ is not a final 
destination. Because the underlying driver of 
meeting future climate targets is persistent, 
the extensive foundational work performed 
by CSIRO and its partners is viewed as a 
critical national asset-in-waiting. This derisked 
knowledge base and proven technical 
capability ensure that when market and 
policy incentives inevitably align, Australia is 
positioned to rapidly build upon what has 
already been achieved. 
Within this challenging external environment, 
CSIRO has focused on its core mission as a 
national science agency: "drive long-term, 
foundational research that underpins 
innovation". In the CCS context, CSIRO’s key 
contributions that have enabled research 
translation and commercialisation include: 
While enabling significant progress, 
stakeholders also pointed to internal, 
institutional hurdles within CSIRO that 
have, at times, complicated the path to 
commercialisation. Several partners 
described the process of negotiating 
contracts and intellectual property 
agreements with CSIRO as a lengthy and 
rigid process that can stifle the agility 
required for commercial ventures. The 
perception of CSIRO as a high-cost 
service provider has sometimes led 
potential partners to seek alternatives, 
particularly when a project's success 
did not hinge on the premium 
credibility of the CSIRO brand. 
De-risking Technical Aspects of CCS 
Stakeholders noted that CSIRO has 
contributed to moving CCS from "just 
doing studies" to undertaking "real 
work" in industrial environments. Its 
extensive pilot plant programs provided 
crucial data and operational experience 
needed to build industry confidence. 
Strategic Collaboration & Partnership 
CSIRO has a strong track record of 
creating high-value IP from its CCS 
research, which serves as the 
foundation for commercialisation. The 
most prominent example is a strategic 
R&D collaboration with a leading 
overseas capture technology supplier, a 
partnership demonstrating a pathway 
for converting Australian research into 
global commercial impact.

CASE STUDY 
ION Clean Energy: 
A Commercial and R&D Partnership Bringing Carbon Capture 
Technology to the Global Market 
3.7 Navigating the Path to Commercialisation 23 
The successful commercialisation of carbon capture technology by US-based ION 
Clean Energy provides a clear line of sight from CSIRO's publicly funded research to a 
major commercial outcome, demonstrating the world-class quality of the science. 
Commercial Success 
ION Clean Energy has successfully raised over USD $80 million in 
capital from investors including Carbon Direct Capital, Chevron New 
Energies, Williams and Denbury (now owned by ExxonMobil). CSIRO also 
benefits from the commercial agreements in place. 
Momentum for collaboration began when ION’s leadership saw performance data on a 
new solvent system that began at CSIRO and was presented at the 2018 GHGT 
conference in Melbourne. ION’s leadership believed the technology to be superior to 
other solutions available at the time and initiated a strategic R&D collaboration 
between the two organisations. Since then, CSIRO and ION have partnered to continue 
developing the technology to prepare for the global commercial market. 
The impact of this partnership has been substantial: 
Global Ambition 
ION Clean Energy is now deploying its capture technology globally and 
has a stated ambition to capture one billion tonnes of CO₂ by 2050 
through the continuation of its commercial efforts and R&D 
collaboration with CSIRO. 
However, the story also underscores the key challenge of the "valley of death" in 
Australian innovation. Stakeholders noted that for the technology to be successfully 
scaled, commercialisation usually occurs overseas, where the investment landscape is 
more conducive to high-risk technology development. While a validation of success, 
this example underlines the critical need for stronger domestic pathways to ensure 
Australia retains its world-class scientific talent and can translate this expertise into 
locally based commercial enterprises that can anchor a new industry at home. 
"The biggest contribution is the work that they did of getting the research out of the lab 
into a demo with an eye on commercial needs... over the last 15 years, the technology 
is much better and it's ready to be deployed now because of what they did." 
- Frank Morton, former Director of Technology Development of the US National 
Carbon Capture Center

APPENDICES 
Appendix 1: Stakeholder Interview List 24 
APPENDIX 1: STAKEHOLDER INTERVIEW LIST 
Additional stakeholders not listed in the table above were interviewed to inform the impact assessment, and we acknowledge 
their contributions while respecting their decision not to be named in this report.

APPENDICES 
Appendix 2: Program Logic Diagram 25 
APPENDIX 2: PROGRAM LOGIC DIAGRAM

APPENDICES 
Appendix 2: Program Logic Diagram 26 
APPENDIX 2: PROGRAM LOGIC DIAGRAM