Australian Centre for 
Disease Preparedness

2021 | Year in Review



Citation 

Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness 
2021: Year in Review. CSIRO, Australia.

Copyright

© Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 
Organisation 2021. To the extent permitted by law, all rights 
are reserved, and no part of this publication covered by 
copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by 
any means except with the written permission of CSIRO.

Acknowledgements

This activity receives grant funding from the Australian 
Government through the National Collaborative 
Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS).

Important disclaimer

The information included in this document is based 
on the calendar year from 1 Jan 2021 to 31 Dec 2021.

CSIRO advises that the information contained in this 
publication comprises general statements based on 
scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to 
be aware that such information may be incomplete or 
unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance 
or actions must therefore be made on that information 
without seeking prior expert professional, scientific 
and technical advice. To the extent permitted by 
law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants) 
excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, 
including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs, 
expenses and any other compensation, arising directly 
or indirectly from using this publication (in part or in 
whole) and any information or material contained in it.

CSIRO is committed to providing web accessible content 
wherever possible. If you are having difficulties with 
accessing this document please contact csiro.au/contact

Acknowledgement of Traditional Owners

The Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness 
respectfully acknowledges the Wadawurrung people 
of the Kulin Nation, the Traditional Owners of the land 
on which we undertake our science and business today. 
We pay our respects to their Elders past and present.

We thank the Wadawurrung people for their 
custodianship of the land and acknowledge their 
deep connection with this country. We strive to learn 
from their unique perspective and knowledge.

Cover image: CSIRO’s Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness is located in Geelong, Victoria. 




From the Director 

The work of CSIRO’s Australian Centre 
for Disease Preparedness spans a 
spectrum of infectious disease, reflecting 
the critical importance of integrating 
disease control to encompass people, 
our domestic and companion animals, 
and our wildlife and their ecosystems. 

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has continued to dominate 
much of our work over the past year. Our scientists have 
built on our ground-breaking work in the development 
of the first animal model for SARS-CoV-2, undertaking 
metabolic profiling and studies of innate immune 
responses, to better define the course of disease and 
correlates of immunity following vaccination and 
infection. We have also been contributing to studies of 
the susceptibility of other animals to this virus, along with 
the risks of transmission back to humans. Our work with 
CSIRO colleagues on in silico analysis of SARS-CoV-2 variants 
has also provided valuable insights into the evolution 
of this virus, along with analysis and interpretation of 
the complex data being made available worldwide.

We continue to serve the nation’s agriculture and food 
production industries, as Australia’s national reference 
laboratory for most nationally notifiable diseases. 
We provide expert consultancy to federal and state 
agriculture departments on animal diseases, their detection 
and control. We work closely with state diagnostic 
laboratories and have delivered over 39,000 tests 
as part of our diagnostic, surveillance, quarantine and 
exclusion testing activities for cases of suspect disease.



The unique natural fauna of Australia also presents 
additional challenges in disease emergence. This 
year Hendra virus genotype 2, previously only seen in 
flying-foxes, was isolated from a horse. This served 
as a timely reminder of the constant threat posed by 
the spillover of viruses from wildlife, and the need 
to better understand the drivers for such events and 
reduce the associated risk of their occurrence.

Our work also extends to the Asia Pacific region, where 
our active international program builds laboratory 
capability in the diagnosis of important animal diseases 
such as African swine fever, which has destroyed 
almost half of China’s breeding pig population and 
now threatens Australia’s near neighbours. 

These many challenges have also provided opportunities 
to improve the capability of our facilities, develop the 
skillsets of our people, and develop broader capability 
in Australia, through the work of our Academic Board 
in partnership with Australian universities. We have 
recently commissioned a new electron microscopy suite, 
and will shortly commence a major refurbishment of 
our facility to ensure it remains capable of delivering 
to Australia’s needs for the next 35 years. 

2021 has been a very successful year for CSIRO’s ACDP 
and, while the future path of COVID-19 in 2022 is 
difficult to predict, the future of ACDP is clear. We have 
a pivotal role to play as the nation’s premier One Health 
institute, leading our preparedness and response to 
future animal and zoonotic infectious disease threats.

Professor Trevor Drew
Director, CSIRO’s Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness



2021 snapshot

3

OIE Collaborating 
Centres

10

OIE Reference 
laboratories

Partnering in 

2

CSIRO Missions

Infectious Disease Resilience 

Antimicrobial Resistance

39,212

tests 
performed

9

post-doctoral fellows

5

CSIRO challenges 
supported

Food security and quality

Health and wellbeing 

Resilient and valuable environments 

Future industries
Secure Australia and region

14

students

6

new COVID-19 
research projects

38 million

media audience reach

49

new facility access 
applications approved

93

public enquiries regarding 
ACDP capabilities

77

publications 



About us

CSIRO’s Australian Centre for Disease 
Preparedness (ACDP) provides Australia’s 
highest level of biocontainment within 
a purpose-built biosecurity facility.

Through our world-leading infrastructure, research 
programs and scientific expertise, the research ACDP 
enables helps protect Australia’s valuable livestock 
and aquaculture industries, and the community, 
from exotic and emerging infectious diseases.

Our expert research and operational teams work 
together across multiple disciplines at ACDP, adopting 
a One Health approach that recognises the health of 
people, animals and the environment are interconnected.

Together, our staff: 

• Increase Australia’s preparedness and capability to 
rapidly respond to biosecurity challenges, including 
human and animal health and biosecurity threats
• Conduct fundamental research to increase 
understanding of infectious agents of 
significance to human and animal health 
• Support development and testing of 
vaccines and therapeutics for a broad 
range of human and animal diseases
• Maintain world-class national facility 
infrastructure and accreditation. 


Tissue culture researchers store and catalogue 
frozen stocks of important cell lines.



Our engineering teams work behind the scenes to ensure 
the facility services are in working order.

Delivering opportunity 
and access

Alongside our core research and diagnostics program, 
ACDP also serves as a national facility, supporting 
collaborations with Australian and international 
academics, government agencies, research organisations 
and industry, to access the high-containment research 
infrastructure and capabilities for infectious disease 
research. Our national facility role extends Australia’s 
capabilities in research and development and improves 
pathways for research to translate to applied uses.

To enable this work, our access2ACDP Program facilitates 
requests for information, collaboration or consulting 
services to ACDP. The program coordinates a review process 
for all proposed onsite research, ensuring the research:

• Will result in high impact science
• Is aligned with ACDP’s purposes and capabilities
• Is safe and beneficial to the Australian community. 


For more information, see csiro.au/about/facilities-
collections/ACDP/Accessing-our-facilities.

In 2021, ACDP received over 75 external enquiries for research collaborations from Australian and international entities, 
including universities, private industry and other research organisations. Collaborations were sought across a range 
of science domains including diagnostics, pre-clinical assessments, and COVID-19 vaccine and inactivation studies.



Our capability

ACDP prides itself on its 
dedicated and diverse workforce, 
who apply their skills across 
scientific and support roles to 
maintain this world-class facility 
and deliver impactful science.

Our scientific expertise extends across the disease 
and science spectrum, from diagnostics, pathogenesis 
and epidemiology, to virus characterisation, 
test development and animal studies.

Supporting scientific research are highly specialised 
operations teams who maintain facility biocontainment, 
biosafety, quality assurance, training, site security and 
monitoring, engineering and infrastructure maintenance.

ACDP operates across two sites: a high containment 
facility in East Geelong with laboratories at Physical 
Containment Levels 2, 3 and 4, and a Physical Containment 
level 2 animal facility in Werribee, Victoria.



ACDP’s core activities

We work to protect Australia’s livestock and aquaculture industries and wildlife from 
emerging disease threats, and ensure the competitiveness of our agriculture and trade.

Disease identification and 
characterisation

In addition to housing research 
projects, as a national facility ACDP is 
tasked with characterising emergency 
terrestrial and aquatic animal diseases, 
so authorities can stay informed on 
the threats they pose to Australia. 

National emergency 
disease response

ACDP’s facilities are 
purpose-built so we can 
respond quickly and effectively 
to disease outbreaks, 
whilst meeting our quality 
assurance standards.

Diagnostic services

We provide quality assured 
diagnostic services for new, 
emerging and exotic emergency 
animal diseases, using 
accredited and validated tests.

Emergency preparedness 
and response

Our staff undertake regular training to 
be ready to respond to an emergency 
animal disease outbreak. New insights 
are incorporated into emergency 
animal disease response plans.

Technical advice 
and support

We provide expert advice 
on emergency animal 
diseases, diagnostic policy 
and biosecurity issues. 

Molecular epidemiology

We undertake molecular research studies 
on emergency animal diseases to inform 
epidemiological investigations, 
i.e. disease origins, distribution 
and patterns of infection.

We also contribute to national 
disease surveillance programs.

Reagent and specimen supply

We provide specialised reagents 
for emergency animal disease for 
diagnostic activities in Australian 
state and private laboratories, and for 
outbreak response in neighbouring countries.

Laboratory diagnostic activities are routinely proficiency 
tested and reagents must be adequately quality assured.

Support to international 
activities

We provide scientific 
and diagnostic 
expertise to support 
Australia’s national 
interests in the 
region and beyond.

Research and development

We conduct research and development 
to support ACDP’s diagnostic capability 
in areas such as: assessment of novel 
technologies for improved diagnostic testing; 
new diagnostic tests to address identified 
gaps in capability; and pathogenesis 
studies to enhance understanding of 
control strategies for key diseases.

Training

We provide specialised 
training for Australian 
veterinarians and 
diagnosticians in 
emergency animal 
disease recognition 
and diagnosis.



World class research scientists

Our expert research teams work collaboratively 
with human and animal health agencies in a 
One Health approach, to protect Australia and 
our region’s livestock and aquaculture industries, 
and our people, from infectious disease threats.

Our scientists collaborate with state, national 
and international researchers and organisations 
to deliver our two main research objectives:

• Increase Australia’s preparedness and capability to 
rapidly respond to biosecurity mega-shocks, including 
human and animal health and biosecurity threats
• Protect Australia and our region from 
emerging disease threats.


Animal research services 

Research projects undertaken at ACDP are supported by 
a specialised, trained Animal Services Team comprised 
of veterinarians and animal technicians who are highly 
experienced in the care and welfare of animals. 

An on-site Animal Welfare Officer works alongside the 
Animal Services Team and is responsible for monitoring 
the welfare of animals and ensuring current best 
practice techniques are applied during planning and 
conduct of research projects involving animals. 

All research project proposals involving animals 
are reviewed by an independent Animal Ethics 
Committee to ensure they are conducted in compliance 
with the Australian Code of Practice for the care 
and use of animals for scientific procedures.

ACDP has capability to conduct research with animals 
across Physical Containment Levels 2 to 4.

Our highly trained research teams support a One Health 
approach which recognises the health of people, animals 
and the environment are interconnected.



Diagnostic, surveillance and 
emergency response services

The Diagnostic, Surveillance and Response program 
at ACDP is central to ensuring Australia’s response 
capability to infectious disease events and contributes 
to both passive and targeted surveillance.

Effective disease control and surveillance systems 
are not only important for quick diagnosis and 
response to disease outbreaks, but also for confirming 
the absence of diseases of interest – which is 
essential to facilitate export and import trade. 

This year, the supporting role and work conducted by 
the Diagnostic, Surveillance and Response team at ACDP 
was acknowledged by Agriculture Victoria, who won the 
Government Award in the 2021 Australian Biosecurity 
Awards, for their efforts in the successful response to the 
2020 avian influenza outbreak at six properties in Victoria.

International collaboration and capacity building

ACDP delivers an international program to 
provide greater stability, prosperity and 
resilience across the Asia-Pacific region. 

Australian agriculture benefits significantly from the 
absence of several high-impact diseases from overseas. 
Many of these diseases are present in our region 
and, in some cases, in near-neighbour countries. 

Ensuring our regional partners have the capability to 
detect and control these diseases significantly reduces the 
risk of these diseases reaching our shores. It also leads to 
positive impacts on food security in affected countries. 

ACDP’s International Program has always had a strong 
presence in the region, running many programs to 
support improved laboratory management, including 
biorisk and biosafety management, quality assurance, 
laboratory data management and communication. 
In addition, our scientists provide equipment and 
training in animal health surveillance techniques, 
diagnostic testing and emergency response protocols. 

Complimentary to this work, the Proficiency 
Testing Team at ACDP delivers a range of accredited 
proficiency testing programs for significant diseases, 
such as African swine fever and avian influenza. 

As one of the region’s high biocontainment laboratories, 
many of our researchers maintain World Organisation for 
Animal Health (OIE) Reference Laboratory designations. 
As part of the responsibilities involved with these 
designations, ACDP scientists provide confirmatory 
testing and advice for emergency animal disease 
outbreaks to countries throughout the region. 

In addition, our research scientists maintain accreditation 
in three OIE Collaborating Centres: Capacity building for 
veterinary laboratories, New and emerging diseases, and 
Diagnostic test validation science in the Asia-Pacific region. 
This work is vital to encourage the use of OIE standards and 
ensure transparency in the global animal disease situation. 

In 2021, the International Program team undertook 
a long-term planning process to review the 
purpose of the program and develop priority focus 
areas to build the team’s current international 
footprint and expand in new directions. 

The resulting document will guide activities for 
the next five to 10 years but includes actions to be 
implemented in the next year. The document will 
be reviewed regularly, particularly in response to 
changing priorities and risks in the region. 

Our Diagnostic, Surveillance and Response program has 
significantly contributed to detection of avian influenza 
outbreaks over the past three years. 
Credit: A. Terracini, Flickr, CC-BY-2.0



Biorisk management 

ACDP provides Australia with the capability to safely hold 
and conduct work on the most dangerous pathogens 
in the world. Through the expertise and dedication of 
the Biorisk Management Group, research at ACDP is 
microbiologically safe and secure, in full compliance 
with our national and international obligations.

Supporting our commitment to best practice, our 
internal processes of review, evaluation, education 
and training ensures ACDP operates at or beyond 
the highest levels of national compliance and safety. 
The experience developed by ACDP in biosecurity, 
biocontainment and biosafety is highly valued by 
governments and customers around the world.

Biocontainment engineering

Our highly trained people provide specialised 
engineering requirements for the day-to-day 
operation of ACDP. This includes maintaining 
critical infrastructure, biocontainment, biosecurity 
and compliance with regulatory frameworks. 

Restricted access protocols ensure high standards of 
biocontainment and workplace safety across our research and 
diagnostic activities.

Specialist trades, including electricians, play an 
important role in ensuring the facility infrastructure 
is fit-for purpose to deliver our science. 



World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)

OIE Collaborating Centres:

• Laboratory Capacity Building
• New and Emerging Diseases
• Diagnostic Test Validation Science 
in the Asia-Pacific Region


OIE Reference Laboratory designations:

• Bluetongue virus 
• Hendra and Nipah virus diseases 
• Highly pathogenic avian influenza and low 
pathogenic avian influenza (poultry)
• Newcastle disease
• African swine fever
• Classical swine fever
• Abalone herpesvirus 
• Ranavirus 
• Yellow head virus genotype 1
• Epizootic haematopoietic necrosis virus


World Health 
Organisation (WHO)

• Member of WHO 
Network of Laboratories 
for Severe Acute 
Respiratory Syndrome
• Representation on WHO 
Severe Acute Respiratory 
Syndrome Coronavirus 
2 Expert Group


The Food and Agriculture 
Organization of the 
United Nations (FAO)

FAO Reference Centre 
designations:

• Animal Influenza and 
Newcastle disease
• Laboratory Biorisk 
Management 


ACDPs Reference Laboratory role

We work closely with veterinary and human health agencies around the world

Reference laboratories and collaborating centres

ACDP is an International Reference Laboratory for several 
diseases and hosts Collaborating Centres for the region. 

Our reference laboratories fulfil a vital service 
to Australia and the Australian Government 
(the Department of Agriculture), providing the 
diagnostic and surveillance capability to monitor 
and respond to new and emerging diseases and 
high-consequence pathogens of animal origin. 

ACDP is a World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) 
Collaborating Centre for Laboratory Capacity Building, 
New and Emerging Diseases and Diagnostic Test Validation 
Science in the Asia-Pacific region. We have responsibility 
for generating new knowledge, networks and techniques 
that improve the use and interpretation of data and 
information in protecting human and animal health.

In addition, many of our researchers are members 
of national and international committees and 
expert groups that advise and support governments 
to provide education and implement controls to 
minimise the impact of emerging diseases.



Delivering assays for diagnosis, surveillance 
and response to disease outbreaks

Australia’s response to emerging and existing biological 
threats to animal health requires development of 
new reagents and assays suitable for detection and 
identification of disease agents. Diagnosis of disease 
informs appropriate actions aimed at mitigating the 
threat to our animals, industries and people. 

The Bioassay Research and Development team at 
ACDP develops and manufactured novel diagnostic 
tests and bioreagents suitable for detection of 
veterinary and zoonotic diseases. While SARS-CoV-2 
assay-related activities were prioritised, the team 
also delivered reagents used in assays or studies of 
foot and mouth disease, influenza, Aujeszky’s disease, 
Hendra virus and bovine respiratory disease. 

The assays and reagents developed support ACDP’s 
diagnostic services program and external customers. 
This important role forms an integral part of the 
Diagnosis, Surveillance and Response program at 
ACDP and the Australian Government Department 
of Agriculture, Water and the Environment’s 
efforts to ensure Australian biosecurity.

For more information on Bioassay R&D at ACDP 
contact Grant Peck, grant.peck@csiro.au

The Bioassay Research and Development 
team helps develop bespoke reagents 
needed for new diagnostic tests and assays. 



Ethical and sustainable cell culture capability

Modelling disease in animals and humans places significant 
ethical, safety and logistical challenges around research 
and therapeutic development. Similarly, obtaining a 
continual source of primary cells from animals and humans 
for in vitro experimentation has practical challenges. 

In response, researchers at ACDP have generated 
a renewable stem cell culture platform used for 
studying human and animal host-virus interactions, 
as a novel way to understand pathogen biology and 
identify biomarkers which could be used in future 
surveillance and drug discovery activities. 

These ex vivo models are already helping to identify 
effective drugs to treat COVID-19, through the development 
of clinically relevant tissue systems (CSIRO’s sySTEMS 
initiative). Such innovative systems compliment in vivo 
models of disease and assist us in reducing, replacing and 
refining the animal experimentation and research we do. 

For more information on our cell culture capability 
contact Dr Sinéad Williams, sinead.williams@csiro.au 
or Dr Elizabeth Pharo, liz.pharo@csiro.au 

96-well plates of cells are cultured for high-throughput 
drug screening tests.



Maintaining our infrastructure

ACDP part-life refit

In 2020, we received $220M to future-proof ACDP’s extensive 
high-containment laboratories and ensure the continuation 
of CSIRO’s capability to prevent and respond to exotic and 
emerging animal and zoonotic diseases in Australia.

ACDP’s part-life refit project will deliver a range of 
upgrade and renewal works to ensure the facility 
is aligned with emerging, and more stringent, 
regulatory compliance standards. This will ensure 
the facility is fit for purpose into the future.

Provision of a new laboratory wing

In 2021, ACDP proposed an amendment to the part-life 
refit project, involving the construction of a new wing 
connected to the existing building. This option was 
in lieu of the upgrade of a commensurate area in the 
existing facility and significantly reduces the risk of a 
disruption of service during the facility upgrade. 

The new adjoining wing will provide space for 
collaboration, incorporating state-of-the-art 
facilities that will meet Australia’s needs in 
disease preparedness for the next 35 years.

The wing will have approximately 1100m2 of 
lab area at Physical Containment Level 3. 

Design company Aurecon appointed

Approval for the new wing enabled the next 
stage of the project to proceed with the 
appointment of a design services team.

After a lengthy tender process, engineering, design and 
advisory company Aurecon was appointed to design the 
new laboratory spaces for the part-life refit project.

Design meetings with users commenced in 
November and will progress towards a Public 
Works Committee submission in 2023.

National Collaborative Research 
Infrastructure Strategy 
(NCRIS) investment

The Australian Government’s National Collaborative 
Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) investment in 
ACDP has enabled the opportunity for CSIRO to deliver 
world-class research infrastructure for use by Australian 
and overseas researchers to benefit Australian’s national 
disease diagnostic capability and strengthen the country’s 
biosecurity framework. Continued operational funding 
allows ACDP to support high quality research that will 
drive greater innovation in the Australian research sector 
to help solve national and global health challenges. 

Access to these facilities has enabled CSIRO’s research 
on COVID-19, such as testing of vaccines and antivirals, 
and research to gain an understanding of the SARS-CoV-2 
virus, including genomic sequencing and imaging.

NCRIS funded infrastructure at ACDP includes 
Physical Containment Level 4 laboratories, a Physical 
Containment Level 3 immunology laboratory, 
Physical Containment Level 3 bioimaging suite and 
the Physical Containment Level 3 insectary.

An artist’s impression of the new wing at ACDP.

Regular upkeep of specialist equipment, such as PC4 suits, 
ensures the highest level of safety for our researchers and 
quality of our research.



New electron microscopy 
laboratory suite

In 2020, ACDP received Science and Industry Endowment 
Fund support for the purchase of a new electron 
microscope. Support staff and scientists worked closely 
together to implement the design and build of a new 
electron microscopy laboratory suite. The new suite 
is in ACDP’s non-secure area, making the facility more 
readily accessible to staff and external researchers.

The laboratory was recently completed and the electron 
microscope commissioning will be completed in 2022. 

Improving our environmental 
footprint

Until now, ACDP has had to rely on formaldehyde 
to perform gaseous decontamination of laboratory 
spaces. While appropriate measures are taken to 
protect staff and contractors from potential health 
risks of working with formaldehyde, finding a suitable 
alternative is the preferred long-term option. 

To find a long-term suitable alternative to formaldehyde, 
the Biorisk Management Group at ACDP conducted 
a project to identify potential alternatives. Hydrogen 
peroxide vapour was identified as a possible substitute. 
If suitable levels of decontamination can be achieved, 
hydrogen peroxide fumigation is safer and increases 
room availability because the decontamination procedure 
is much shorter. In Physical Containment Levels 2 and 
3 rooms, decontamination times are reduced from 
four days to one. At Physical Containment Level 4, 
the time is reduced from seven days to three. 

In 2020, staff completed a successful trial demonstrating 
that decontamination of a room using hydrogen 
peroxide was comparable to formaldehyde by a direct 
measure of lethality of biological indicators. The team 
successfully transitioned to hydrogen peroxide for all 
Physical Containment Level 2 room decontaminations. 

In 2021, the team continued further trials with hydrogen 
peroxide vapour, expanding the trials to include 
biological safety cabinets and HEPA filter housings 
as well as the small animal rooms. The trials showed 
successful decontamination of biological indicators.

HEPA filters are one of the physical 
infrastructure controls that ensure the 
facility’s biocontainment is secure. 



Science highlights 

Our research continues to focus on all four aspects of disease 
preparedness: awareness, assessment, mitigation and response. 
Our approach encompasses the One Health concept, which incorporates 
research across veterinary, human and environmental health.

COVID-19 research

Since the start of the pandemic, researchers at ACDP have been 
heavily involved in the global response to COVID-19. 

AstraZeneca vaccine pre-clinical 
research published

In May this year, peer-reviewed results from our preclinical 
evaluation of the University of Oxford-AstraZeneca 
COVID-19 vaccine in our ferret model were 
published in the scientific journal npj Vaccines. 

The preclinical study, conducted by CSIRO at ACDP 
in 2020, evaluated the vaccine’s efficacy when 
delivered in one or two doses, through either an 
intramuscular injection or by nasal drops.

The study found: 

• The vaccine triggered a strong immune response in ferrets. 
• The vaccine significantly reduced viral loads in nasal and 
oral samples from vaccinated ferrets, indicating it could be 
helpful in preventing ongoing transmission of the virus. 
• Nasal delivery of the vaccine has the potential 
to further improve its efficacy.


Pre-clinical evaluation of ‘warm vaccine’ 
Mynvax

Most of the approved COVID-19 vaccines now in use around 
the world require some form of refrigeration, which 
significantly complicates the logistics around transport, 
storage and delivery, particularly in rural and remote regions.

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science and 
biotech start-up Mynvax have developed a heat 
tolerant vaccine candidate that does not require 
refrigeration. The vaccine remains stable at 37°C for 
up to a month and at 100°C for up to 90 minutes.

Researchers at ACDP contributed to Mynvax’s pre-clinical 
evaluation by assessing vaccinated mice sera for efficacy 
against key coronavirus variants, including the Delta variant. 

The published results showed that Mynvax formulations 
triggered a strong immune response in mice to SARS-CoV-2. 
These results were to support selection of the most suitable 
candidate for human clinical trials in India, planned for late 2021.

Our scientists are working towards novel solutions 
for some of our biggest science challenges. 



Rapid screening tool for COVID-19 
treatments

Researchers at ACDP are leading a new project 
which received $1 million in funding from the 
Australian Government’s Medical Research Future 
Fund, matched by $736,000 from CSIRO.

The project aims to develop a multi-tissue drug screening 
tool, tailored for infections from SARS-CoV-2 and variants 
of concern. The rapid screening tool will use four types 
of clinically relevant human tissues – lower respiratory 
tract, lung, neural and cardiac tissues – specifically 
selected based on how SARS-CoV-2 infects people.

The tool will screen existing drugs with the aim to 
have identified three suitable drug candidates, already 
approved by the Therapeutic Goods Administration or 
the US Food and Drug Administration, to progress to 
phase two and three human clinical trials within a year. 

Earlier detection of COVID-19 infection

Scientists at ACDP have developed a way to detect 
COVID-19 earlier in the infection cycle using the 
body’s own biomarkers and machine learning. 

Instead of looking for the virus, the approach looked to 
understand the body’s own response to infection. This often 
occurs before a virus can amplify to detectable levels. 

Researchers measured three host molecules, or 
biomarkers, in a patient’s blood and showed they 
could detect COVID-19 with 99 per cent accuracy.

There is no currently available commercial technology to 
measure biomarkers. We’re undertaking further research 
to bring the COVID-19 biomarker test closer to reality.

Other SARS-CoV-2 research

CSIRO’s COVID-19 experts continue to track the 
evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and variants.

For more information on our COVID-19 research, 
contact Dr Paul De Barro, paul.debarro@csiro.au

Our biocontainment specialists work on testing COVID-19 
stability on a range of surfaces. 

Automated equipment enables fast, high-throughput 
experimentation and minimises the health and safety risks of 
repeated strain injury for technical staff. 



Hendra virus research

Hendra virus is a zoonotic disease 
transmitted from flying-foxes to 
horses, and from horses to humans. 
CSIRO has been involved in Hendra 
virus research since its emergence in 
Australia in 1994, and our researchers 
have made a significant contribution to 
current understanding of the virus and 
preparedness against future events. 

Confirming the Hendra vaccine is 
highly effective

The Equivac HeV vaccine for horses was released by Pfizer 
Animal Health (now Zoetis) for use in Australia at the end of 
2012. This year, scientists at ACDP conducted a study to assess 
how the Equivac HeV vaccine has been performing in the field.

The study used horse serum samples submitted to ACDP 
over a six-year period, from 2014-2020. All samples were 
from horses that had received between one and 12 doses 
of the vaccine. The samples were sent from veterinarians 
requesting the Hendra virus serum neutralisation test. 
ACDP is the only lab in Australia that can conduct this test. 

The test detects the presence of ‘neutralising antibodies’, 
which bind to the virus and stop it from infecting cells and 
replicating. A high amount of antibodies in the serum (or high 
titre) provides a greater level of protection for the horse.

The study showed the vaccine was highly effective in 
protecting horses, provided they had received at least three 
vaccinations (two doses three to six weeks apart, and a third 
dose six months later). Full results were published in July.

New genetic type of Hendra virus uncovered

This year, researchers at ACDP published a paper documenting 
a new genetic type of Hendra virus in flying-foxes. 

After monitoring flying-fox samples from 2013-2021, the 
research team found the new genetic type in grey-headed 
flying foxes in Victoria and South Australia, and in the little 
red flying-fox in Western Australia. These results confirm the 
virus can be found in four species of flying-fox, confirming 
Hendra can be found across a broad region of Australia.

They called the new type Hendra Virus Genotype 2 (HeV-g2).

A separate project called ‘Horses as Sentinels’, led by 
the University of Sydney and CSIRO and funded by a 
Biosecurity Innovation Program grant from the Department 
of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, detected the 
same genetic type in early 2021, in testing conducted on 
samples collected from a horse from Queensland in 2015. 

In October 2021, the new genetic type was also detected 
in a horse near Newcastle in New South Wales, the most 
southern case of Hendra virus infection yet recorded.

As HeV-g2 is genetically very similar to the original Hendra 
virus, which can be deadly, our researchers say there is a risk 
to horses in all areas where flying-foxes are found in Australia.

Our diagnostics scientists and the ‘Horses as Sentinels’ 
project team have been working closely with vets and 
laboratories around Australia to implement improved 
tests for horses with signs of Hendra virus disease. 
The tests can detect and differentiate both types of 
Hendra virus with a high degree of accuracy. 

Fortunately, while further research is needed, 
researchers expect the current Hendra virus vaccine 
will also work against the new Hendra virus variant.

For more information on Hendra research at ACDP 
contact Dr Kim Halpin, kim.halpin@csiro.au

For more information on the Horses as Sentinels 
project contact Dr Ina Smith, ina.smith@csiro.au

Working with Hendra virus at Physical Containment level 4 has 
been a speciality of CSIRO researchers for many years. 



African swine fever

African swine fever is a severe 
disease of pigs that poses a real 
and present threat to our region. 

Supporting PNG’s response to 
African swine fever 

As an accredited World Organisation for Animal Health 
Reference Laboratory for African swine fever, ACDP has 
continued to assist the Papua New Guinea (PNG) National 
Agriculture Quarantine and Inspection Authority (NAQIA) 
by performing diagnostic testing on samples collected 
by NAQIA staff for critical surveillance activities. 

Our staff have also delivered technical advice, 
training and development activities for field-based 
and laboratory diagnostic methods, including more 
accurate tests through funding by the Australian 
Centre for International Agricultural Research.

This successful project has resulted in new funding 
from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 
for ACDP to continue to strengthen and support PNG’s 
ability to detect and control priority animal diseases, 
using African swine fever as a test case disease.

Our support for other Pacific Islands countries has 
involved advice and assistance on procurement of African 
swine fever rapid antigen test kits for field testing, 
accompanied by virtual training sessions, funded and 
facilitated by the Pacific Horticultural and Agricultural 
Market Access Program and the Pacific Community.

By supporting PNG and the Pacific Islands to strengthen 
animal disease surveillance, diagnosis and control, we can 
help to improve food security and market opportunities 
for PNG, Australia and the entire Asia-Pacific region.

For more information on our diagnostic virology capability 
contact Dr David Williams, david.williams@csiro.au

Testing ticks for transmission of 
African swine fever

African swine fever can be carried by soft 
ticks in the genus Ornithodoros. 

To determine the risk of the virus becoming established 
in Australia, CSIRO is conducting vector-competence 
studies in the native Australian soft tick Ornithodoros 
gurneyi (kangaroo soft tick). This is part of an overarching 
African swine fever research program at ACDP.

By establishing a tick colony and conducting these studies, 
we are helping to clarify the potential risk of African swine 
fever establishment in Australia, which assists in informing 
policy to prevent disease establishment in these areas. 

For more information on this study contact 
Dr Prasad Paradkar, prasad.paradkar@csiro.au

African swine fever under the microscope. 



Emerging diseases in the region

The recent emergence of exotic 
arbovirus disease threats in the region 
requires heightened biosecurity and 
surveillance measures in Australia to 
protect our disease-free status.

Lumpy skin disease

Lumpy skin disease is a disease of cattle and buffalo 
caused by a capripox virus. Up to 50 per cent 
of infected animals may not show clinical signs, 
but other animals can be severely affected, with 
mortality reaching 10 per cent in some outbreaks. 

In recent years, lumpy skin disease has moved 
into the Asia-Pacific region, increasing 
the risk of it reaching our shores. 

Management of the disease relies on vaccination, control 
of animal movements and culling infected animals. 
After its emergence in Asia, exclusion testing requests 
for this disease have increased over the past three years. 

A whole genome sequencing pipeline for 
lumpy skin disease is important for rapid virus 
characterisation, including assessment of 
recombination events, differentiation of vaccine 
and wild-type strains, and to inform phylodynamic 
assessment of virus transmission pathways.

The lumpy skin disease genome is challenging to 
sequence as it is unusually large (151 kbp) and contains 
repetitive regions. To overcome these obstacles, 
researchers at ACDP are developing a probe enrichment 
procedure combined with short-read (Illumina) and 
long-read (Oxford Nanopore) sequencing, to allow the 
complete sequencing of viral genomes derived from 
both infected clinical specimens and virus isolates.

For more information on lumpy skin disease research 
contact Dr Tim Bowden, tim.bowden@csiro.au 

Comparative genomic analysis of the first 
Ehrlichia canis detections in Australia

Ehrlichia canis is one of the most prevalent tick-borne 
pathogens of canines globally. For many decades 
Australia was thought to be free of the pathogen, 
but this abruptly changed in May 2020 when E. canis 
was detected throughout much of northern Australia. 

This raised questions about how long E. canis had been 
present in Australia and where it may have originated. 
The pathogen is difficult to sequence due to its intracellular 
location and challenges associated with culturing. 

Researchers at ACDP have developed a probe enrichment 
technique, allowing us to recover three complete genomes 
from Western Australia, Northern Territory and South 
Australia. Although reference data is lacking, our genomic 
data suggest that E. canis in Australia may have originated 
in Asia or the Middle East and was recently introduced, 
spreading rapidly throughout northern Australia.

For more information on Ehrlichia canis research 
contact Dr Anthony Keyburn, anthony.keyburn@csiro.au 
or Dr Tristan Reid, tristan.reid@csiro.au

Research at ACDP suggests Ehrlichia canis may have reached 
Australia via Asia or the Middle East. 
Credit: Gary Alpert, CC BY SA 3.0



African horse sickness

African horse sickness is a serious, often fatal vector-borne 
disease of equids and is listed as an International 
Organisation for Animal Health disease of international 
concern. The virus is primarily transmitted by biting midges 
and is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, but a widespread 
outbreak was reported in Thailand in 2019, and the virus 
was then reported in Malaysia in September 2020. 

Despite the risk of vector migration and movement 
of animals spreading the disease into nearby regions, 
African horse sickness has not been reported in Australia. 

With the outbreak in South East Asia, ACDP has had an 
increase in laboratory submissions for African horse 
sickness disease exclusion, from two in 2018 to 71 in 2021.

African horse sickness is a rapidly evolving segmented 
RNA virus that readily reassorts with different strains. 
This makes whole genome sequencing particularly 
important for detecting reassortment events and 
tracking the rapidly evolving surface proteins. 

With funding from the Department of Agriculture, 
researchers at ACDP are working on understanding which 
biting midges in Australia feed off horses, and which 
are capable of transmitting African horse sickness.

Researchers at ACDP are developing denaturation and 
probe enrichment techniques, combined with short-read 
and long-read sequencing, to robustly and reproducibly 
sequence whole African horse sickness genomes. 

For more information on African horse sickness research 
contact Dr Debbie Eagles, debbie.eagles@csiro.au

Foot and mouth disease

Foot and mouth disease: emergency 
vaccination in livestock

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) threatens food security 
in both developed and developing countries and 
poses a serious threat to the livestock industries 
and trade for ‘FMD-free’ countries like Australia. 

Intramuscular injectable vaccination is one option for 
control if FMD occurred in Australia, along with other 
approved control measures. However, in pigs, vaccines 
can often result in inflammation at the site of inoculation, 
leading to poor vaccination rates in pigs and reluctance to 
vaccinate in endemic countries. Poor vaccination techniques 
can also result in inadequate antibody responses in pigs. 

A team at ACDP is working on an alternative 
intradermal vaccination technology, using a 
needle-free device. The response to vaccination with 
this intradermal vaccine delivery is comparable to 
intramuscular vaccination, does not cause reactions at 
the vaccination site, and is safer for the operator. 

The team also used a novel systems approach to 
measure the early immune responses in vaccinated 
pigs, before antibodies are detected. This provided 
new understanding of the post-vaccination immune 
response using the different vaccination methods 
and the information can be used to design vaccines 
and adjuvants for improved vaccine efficacy. 

Our researchers are analysing results from genome sequencing investigations.



FMD Ready project

Australia needs to be prepared to rapidly recognise and 
react to exotic animal diseases that can cause devastation 
to our livestock industries. These effects can be through 
mortalities, morbidities, and lost production, and diseases 
such as FMD would also lead to severe economic impact 
due to lost export markets and trade restrictions.

The FMD Ready project*, led by researchers at ACDP in 
collaboration with CSIRO colleagues and Charles Sturt 
University, together with multiple partners, aimed to 
increase Australia’s preparedness to exotic disease 
incursions by developing tools that can be used prior, 
during and after an outbreak, using FMD as a model. 

The project also investigated ways to increase stakeholder 
participation in surveillance, which is essential to ensure 
we recognise and respond to emerging situations as quickly 
as possible. The sooner control measures are initiated, 
the smaller the impact of an exotic disease such as FMD.

This project involved close collaboration between a 
team of researchers with diverse backgrounds and 
across a range of disciplines. It allowed us to successfully 
validate our diagnostic tests and generate data on 
the efficacy of the vaccines in our vaccine bank. 

We refined models to test different methods of 
control prior to outbreaks, including estimates 
of cost of the different options. We also created 
tools that can be applied during an outbreak to 
trace the origin and spread of the disease. 

Collectively, these outcomes will assist with 
Australia’s preparedness for a disease incursion.

For more information on foot and mouth disease 
contact Dr Wilna Vosloo, wilna.vosloo@csiro.au or 
Dr Nagendra Singanallur, nagendra.singanallur@csiro.au

*This project is supported by Meat & Livestock Australia, through funding from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the 
Environment as part of its Rural R&D for Profit program, and by producer levies from Australian FMD-susceptible livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs) 
industries and Charles Sturt University (CSU), leveraging significant in-kind support from the research partners. The research partners for this project 
are the Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), CSU through the Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, the Bureau 
of Meteorology (BOM) and the Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, supported by Animal Health Australia (AHA).

The FMD Ready project is helping to improve surveillance, 
preparedness and return to trade for emergency animal 
diseases, using FMD as a model.



Abalone disease outbreak

In May, an outbreak of abalone viral ganglioneuritis 
was detected in wild abalone populations off the 
coast of Victoria. The disease had not been detected 
since 2010 but an outbreak of the same disease in 
2006 affected up to 80 per cent of the wild abalone 
population in Victoria’s Western Zone Abalone Fishery.

Abalone viral ganglioneuritis is a herpesvirus specific 
to abalone, which can cause high mortalities in 
both farmed and wild abalone populations.

Staff from Agriculture Victoria sent samples to our scientists 
for confirmatory testing and on 3 May, we confirmed the 
presence of the causative agent, haliotid herpesvirus-1. 

Further genomic testing confirmed that it was the same 
haliotid herpesvirus-1 Vic strain of the virus responsible 
for the original outbreak in Victoria in 2006. 

ACDP’s Fish Diseases Laboratory hosts the World Organisation 
for Animal Health Reference Laboratory for infection with 
abalone viral ganglioneuritis, and other aquatic diseases.

In addition to testing, our scientists have contributed to 
setting research priorities to identify gaps in knowledge, 
working in consultation with state governments, industry 
and the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation.

For more information on ACDP’s Fish Diseases Laboratory 
contact Dr Nick Moody, nick.moody@csiro.au

Partnering to eradicate 
Mycoplasma bovis in New Zealand

Mycoplasma bovis causes a range of serious disease in cattle, 
including mastitis, pneumonia and late-term abortions. 

Researchers from ACDP, in collaboration with 
Massey University and AgResearch, New Zealand, are 
contributing to the effort to eradicate Mycoplasma bovis 
from New Zealand livestock industries. Funded by the 
New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries, the team 
has been tasked with developing a novel technology to 
improve disease detection rates in cattle, as Mycoplasma 
bovis cannot be reliably diagnosed using existing tests.

Our researchers have developed an assay that 
identifies Mycoplasma bovis cases based purely on 
the host response to infection, rather than assaying 
for the pathogen itself. This assay is being assessed 
via World Organisation for Animal Health guidelines 
for diagnostic test validation for infectious diseases. 
If this technology can improve or complement existing 
diagnostic strategies, it will be incorporated into 
the New Zealand Mycoplasma bovis surveillance and 
eradication plan, while also exemplifying how new 
approaches can improve detection of infectious diseases. 

For more information on disease mitigation technologies 
contact Dr Cameron Stewart, cameron.stewart@csiro.au

Australia produces nearly half of the world’s wild-caught abalone, so keeping wild and farmed populations healthy is very important 
to our aquaculture industry. 



Engagement and outreach

STEM outreach

In late 2021, staff at ACDP were invited to participate in 
a student outreach program aimed at high achievers in 
high school science from across Australia. The students 
were finalists in the BHP Foundation Science and 
Engineering Awards, which are Australia’s most 
prestigious school science and engineering awards and 
a partnership between the BHP Foundation, CSIRO and 
the Australian Science Teachers Association. 

Scientists, Mark Tizard, Michelle Lockhart and Dan Layton 
provided the students with a brief history of how they 
ended up in science and the path they took to get there, 
including sharing their achievements and where they derive 
their inspiration. Our researchers reported the students were 
incredibly engaged and asked questions well above their pay 
grade. We look forward to participating again next year.

ACDP Seminar series

The ACDP seminar series was held online in 
2021. It provides a platform for our researchers, 
students and visiting scientists to present 
their work to a broader audience onsite and to 
others in the Geelong Research network.

Our people

Our people are central to the work and 
success of ACDP, and the important 
outcomes we deliver for the nation. 

CSIRO promotes four workplace values:

• People first
• Further together
• Trusted
• Making it real.


These values seek to ensure that not only do we 
recognise the important work our people do, but that 
we also recognise the equal importance of the way 
the work is done, and how we treat each other.

These values unite us in our purpose and are 
wholly embraced by the team at ACDP.

Our people are highly trained scientific, technical and 
professional officers who are committed to high standards 
of work, and to ensuring the safety and wellbeing of each 
other. This commitment is underpinned by our health and 
safety committees, institutional bio-safety committees, 
and biorisk and health, safety and environment procedures. 

ACDP seeks to maintain the highest standards of training 
for all its people to ensure they understand both their 
personal responsibility for their own safety as well as 
the responsibility for the safety of their colleagues.

As a part of CSIRO, ACDP is a workplace that promotes 
continual learning and strives for a best practice approach 
in all work and processes, including to animal ethics, 
quality assurance systems and proficiency testing, 
research ethics, and our international outreach programs.



Professional development

We actively promote ongoing training and other 
development opportunities to our people. CSIRO offers a 
broad range of learning and development opportunities, 
including face-to-face and blended programs, self-directed 
learning resources, and on-the-job development. 
Supplementing formal development opportunities 
are initiatives such as coaching and mentoring, and 
the potential to attend or present at conferences.

This year we are proud of two of our pathologists, 
Jemma Bergfeld and Willy Suen, who passed their 
exams for The College of American Pathologists and 
received their board-certification. These internationally 
recognised, high-ranking conferrals enable us to offer 
a high level of aptitude in our pathology team and 
deliver the highest standard of pathology services.

Many of our people took advantage of the 
broad range of professional development 
opportunities available to all CSIRO staff.

Indigenous engagement

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples were 
Australia’s first scientists and CSIRO recognises that 
the knowledge, innovation and practices maintained 
by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in their 
connection to Country can significantly contribute to 
research and development and solving national challenges.

ACDP is committed to delivering actions under the 
CSIRO Reconciliation Action Plan, building enduring 
relationships with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 
communities, organisations and people across 
scientific knowledge sharing, education, employment, 
and pursuing research and innovation to create a 
positive impact to the lives of all Australians.

In 2021 ACDP established an Indigenous Engagement 
Working Group to oversee the development of an 
action plan for ACDP in meeting its commitments 
under the CSIRO Reconciliation Action Plan. 

As a first step, the group commenced activities to build 
appreciation and understanding in staff of the challenges 
faced by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and 
the opportunities that greater cultural awareness can bring 
to our approaches to scientific enquiry and research. 

Our teams at ACDP are highly trained scientific, technical and 
professional officers who are committed to high standards of 
work, and to ensuring the safety and wellbeing of each other.

CSIRO actively promotes ongoing training and development 
opportunities for our people. Two of our pathologists 
received their board certification to The College of American 
Pathologists this year. 



Early career research 
development

New academic board

ACDP’s new academic board was established to 
support students undertaking formal scientific 
research in pursuit of postgraduate qualifications. 

The overall objective of the Board is to ensure ACDP 
maintains the highest standards in research training, 
scholarship opportunities and collegiate culture. 
This is achieved by ensuring student projects are of 
high-scientific quality, have appropriate financial support, 
and that students receive high-quality supervision. 

The aim is to ensure a positive and rewarding research 
experience for the student, and the delivery of 
high-quality and rigorous scientific outcomes from 
student projects that advance knowledge in the field.

This year, the Board received funding for a new 
PhD government scholarship position for a joint 
ACDP-Charles Sturt University student. 

CSIRO Early Research 
Career Postdoctoral and 
Engineering Fellowships

CSIRO Early Research Career Postdoctoral and Engineering 
Fellows work alongside leading researchers on projects 
of national and global significance. They undertake 
independent research and are mentored by senior 
scientists, while being given access to generous 
personal development and learning opportunities. 

We aim to enhance the research capability of ACDP through 
the employment of PhD graduates as CSIRO Early Research 
Career Fellows. Our goal is to offer a range of opportunities 
to develop successful candidates as future science leaders.

ACDP hosted nine Early Research Career Fellows in 2021.

One of our early research career fellows, in the foreground, 
is using a digital microscope to monitor cell culture growth. 



Our culture

Staff wellbeing 

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant ongoing 
disruption and uncertainty for everyone, and we 
acknowledge the strain this has placed on our people. 
ACDP held several sessions to support our people to cope 
with these stressors in 2021, with particular emphasis on 
stress and fatigue management and coping with lockdowns.

Our people at ACDP also participated in a 
CSIRO-wide fitness initiative in 2021, with our 
participants earning the top spot and reflecting 
our site’s commitment to health and wellbeing. 

Social Club 

The ACDP Social Club aims to make the workplace an 
enjoyable and inclusive place for all. Our hard-working 
committee of 16 staff regularly organises social events 
for people to meet, arranges services such as the tea and 
coffee supply, and holds functions to mark special dates. 

In 2021, the Social Club offered important support 
to our staff as the COVID-19 pandemic refocussed 
the team in their efforts to assist and connect 
staff during a period of disruption and stress. 

Most of our social activities have been online, but 
intermittent face-to-face activities have included a 
Biggest Morning Tea fundraiser, and a ‘Welcome back 
to ACDP’ lunch which offered a brief connection for 
our people between shutdowns. Online quizzes, virtual 
trivia, Bar and Grills, and many discounted tickets to 
events offsite have also provided opportunities to 
connect during another socially distanced year. 

ACDP’s social club adapted to open air activities in line with 
COVID-19 protocols. 

The social club asked our employees’ children to draw what their parents do at work. This digital illustration depicts the team effort 
of our staff to combat COVID-19. 



Future focus

The coming years will see several challenges for our research and operations 
as Australia and the world recover from COVID-19. Yet for ACDP as a 
national facility, the world’s focus on the importance of scientific research 
and preparedness against emerging infectious diseases will harness 
several key opportunities to grow and position ACDP as a critical part 
of cutting-edge Australian science research and infrastructure. 

One Health 

Animal and 
zoonotic disease 
preparedness 
and response 

Strengthening biosecurity in our region

Building capability 
for national and 
regional biosecurity 
and resilience

Protecting our way of life

Improved health 
and wellbeing of 
all Australians



Publication list

1. Adikusuma F, Lushington C, Arudkumar J, Godahewa GI, Chey, 
YCJ, Gierus L, Piltz S, Geiger A, Jain Y, Reti D, Wilson LOW, 
Bauer DC, Thomas PQ (2021) Optimized nickase- and nuclease-
based prime editing in human and mouse cells. Nucleic 
Acids Res, 49(18), 10785-10795. DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkab792 
2. Ahmed S, Khan MS, Gayathri S, Singh R, Kumar S, Patel 
UR, Malladi SK, Rajmani RS, van Vuren PJ, Riddell S, Goldie 
S, Girish N, Reddy P, Upadhyaya A, Pandey S, Siddiqui S, 
Tyagi A, Jha S, Pandey R, Khatun O, Narayan R, Tripathi 
S, McAuley AJ, Singanallur NB, Vasan SS, Ringe RP, 
Varadarajan R (2021) A Stabilized, Monomeric, Receptor 
Binding Domain Elicits High-Titer Neutralizing Antibodies 
Against All SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern. Front Immunol 
12, 765211. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.765211 
3. Alexander MR, Brice AM, Jansen van Vuren P, Rootes 
CL, Tribolet L, Cowled C, Bean AGD, Stewart CR (2021) 
Ribosome-Profiling Reveals Restricted Post Transcriptional 
Expression of Antiviral Cytokines and Transcription 
Factors during SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Int J Mol Sci 
22(7), 3392. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073392 
4. Annand E, High H, Wong F, Phommachanh P, 
Chanthavisouk C, Happold J, Dhingra M, Eagles D, Britton 
P, Alders R (2021) Detection of highly pathogenic avian 
influenza in Sekong province Lao PDR 2018-Potential 
for improved surveillance and management in endemic 
regions. Transboundary and Emerging diseases, 
68(1) 168-182. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13673 
5. Banerjee A, Mossman K, Baker ML (2021) Zooanthroponotic 
potential of SARS-CoV-2 and implications of reintroduction 
into human populations. Cell Host Microbe 29(2), 
160-164. DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2021.01.004 
6. Barrett RS, Wiethoelter A, Halpin K (2021) The 
Hendra virus vaccine: perceptions regarding the 
role of antibody titre testing. Aust Vet Journal, 
99(9), 412-418. https://doi.org/10.1111/avj.13099 
7. Bauer DC, Metke-Jimenez A, Maurer-Stroh S, Tiruvayipati 
S, Wilson LOW, Jain Y, Perrin A, Ebrill K, Hansen DP, 
Vasan SS (2021) Interoperable medical data: The missing 
link for understanding COVID-19. Transbound Emerging 
Disease 68(4), 1753-1760. DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13892 
8. Beale DJ, Shah R, Karpe AV, Hillyer KE, McAuley AJ, Au 
GG, Marsh GA, Vasan SS (2021) Metabolic Profiling from 
an Asymptomatic Ferret Model of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. 
Metabolites 11(5), 327. DOI: 10.3390/metabo11050327. 
9. Boardman WSJ, Baker ML, Boyd V, Crameri G, Peck GR, 
Reardon T, Smith IG, Caraguel CGB, Prowse TAA (2021) 
Serological evidence of exposure to a coronavirus 
antigenically related to severe acute respiratory 
syndrome virus (SARS-CoV-1) in the Grey-headed 
flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus). Transbound Emerg 
Dis 68(4), 2628-2632. DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13908 
10. Bowden T, Crowther J, Wang J (2021) Review of 
critical factors affecting analytical characteristics of 
serological and molecular assays. Revue Scientifique et 
Technique, 40 (1), 53-73. DOI: 10.20506/rst.40.1.3208 
11. Brake DA, Kuhn JH, Marsh GA, Beer M, Fine JB (2022). 
Challenges and Opportunities in the Use of High and 
Maximum Biocontainment Facilities in Developing and 
Licensing Risk Group 3 and Risk Group 4 Agent Veterinary 
Vaccines. ILAR J. 61(1), 46-61. DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilab004 
12. Blasdell KR, Wynne JW, Perera D, Firth C (2021) First detection 
of a novel ‘unknown host’ flavivirus in a Malaysian rodent. 
Access Microbiology 3(4), 000223. DOI: 10.1099/acmi.0.000223 
13. Capozzo AV, Perez-Filgueira M, Vosloo W, Gay 
CG (2021) Editorial: FMD Research: Bridging the 
Gaps With Novel Tools. Front Vet Sci 8, 686141. 
https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.686141 
14. Caraguel CGB, Colling A (2021) Diagnostic likelihood 
ratio the next-generation of diagnostic test accuracy 
measurement. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 40 (1), 
299–309. DOI https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.40.1.3226 
15. Challagulla A, Jenkins KA, O’Neil TE, Shi S, Morris KR, Wise 
TG, Paradkar PN, Tizard ML, Doran TJ, Schat KA (2021) In Vivo 
Inhibition of Marek’s Disease Virus in Transgenic Chickens 
Expressing Cas9 and gRNA against ICP4. Microorganisms 
9(1), 164. DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010164 
16. Challagulla A, Schat KA, Doran TJ (2021) In Vitro Inhibition 
of Influenza Virus Using CRISPR/Cas13a in Chicken Cells. 
Methods Protoc 4(2), 40. DOI: 10.3390/mps4020040 
17. Challagulla A, Shi S, Nair K, O’Neil TE, Morris KR, Wise TG, 
Cahill DM, Tizard ML, Doran TJ, Jenkins KA (2021) Marker 
counter-selection via CRISPR/Cas9 co-targeting for efficient 
generation of genome edited avian cell lines and germ cells. 
Anim Biotechnol, 2, 1-11. DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2021.1885428 
18. Cheung A, Dufour S, Jones G, Kostoulas P, Stevenson 
MA, Singanallur NB, Firestone SM (2021) Bayesian 
latent class analysis when there is an imperfect 
reference test. OIE revue scientifique et technique 
40(1):271-286. DOI: 10.20506/rst.40.1.3224 
19. Colling A, Gardner IA (2021) Conclusions - Validation of 
test for OIE-listed diseases as fit-for-purpose in a world of 
evolving diagnostic technologies and pathogens. Rev. Sci. 
Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 40 (1), 311-317. DOI: 10.20506/rst.40.1.3227 
20. Cox-Witton K, Baker ML, Edson D, Peel AJ, Welbergen 
JA, Field H (2021) Risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission from 
humans to bats - An Australian assessment. One Health 
13, 100247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100247 
21. Deffrasnes C, Luo MX, Wiltzer-Bach L, David CT, Lieu 
KG, Wang LF, Jans DA, Marsh GA, Moseley GW (2021) 
Phenotypic Divergence of P Proteins of Australian Bat 
Lyssavirus Lineages Circulating in Microbats and Flying 
Foxes. Viruses 13(5), 831. DOI: 10.3390/v13050831 
22. Edwards SJ, Caruso S, Suen WW, Jackson S, Rowe B, 
Marsh GA (2021) Evaluation of henipavirus chemical 
inactivation methods for the safe removal of samples from 
the high-containment PC4 laboratory. J Virol Methods 
298, 114287. DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114287 
23. Elfekih S, Metcalfe S, Walsh TK, Cox TE, Strive T (2021) Genomic 
insights into a population of introduced European rabbits 
Oryctolagus cuniculus in Australia and the development 
of genetic resistance to rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus. 
Transbound Emerg Dis., Feb, 1-8. DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14030 
24. Elfekih S, Tay WT, Polaszek A, Gordon KHJ, Kunz D, 
Macfadyen S, Walsh TK, Vyskocilova S, Colvin J, De Barro 
PJ (2021) On species delimitation, hybridization and 
population structure of cassava whitefly in Africa. Sci Rep 
11, 7923. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87107-z 
25. Endersby-Harshman NM, Ali A, Alhumrani B, Alkuriji 
MA, Al-Fageeh MB, Al-Malik A, Alsuabeyl MS, Elfekih S, 
Hoffmann AA (2021) Voltage-sensitive sodium channel 
(Vssc) mutations associated with pyrethroid insecticide 
resistance in Aedes aegypti (L.) from two districts of 
Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: baseline information 
for a Wolbachia release program. Parasit Vectors 14, 
361. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-021-04867-3 




26. Farr RJ, Rootes CL, Rowntree LC, Nguyen THO, Hensen L, 
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